Pinyin
Pinyin ya da Hanyu Pinyin (Çince (basitleştirilmiş): 汉语拼音; Çince (geleneksel): 漢語拼音; Hànyǔ Pīnyīn) Standart Mandarin için Çince yazısında kullanılan romanizasyon sistemidir.[1] Yani her biri ayrı bir ideogram olan Çince karakterlerin Latin alfabesi ile yazılıp okunabilmesini sağlar.[2] Bu sistem 1979 yılından itibaren Çin hükûmeti tarafından resmen benimsenmiştir. Pinyin sistemi, hem en yeni hem de Mandarince telaffuzu en yakın sunan romanizasyon yöntemidir. Artık eskimiş olan Wade-Giles sistemi geçmişte yaygın kullanılmasına karşın yavaş yavaş terkedilmektedir.
Farklı romanizasyon yöntemleri
değiştir1959'da geliştirilen Pinyin'den başka birçok romanizasyon yöntemi daha vardır: Wade-Giles, Tongyong Pinyin, Postal System Pinyin vb. Bu da Çince isimlerin yazılışında karışıklıklara yol açar. Örneğin, Tayvan'ın başkenti Hanyu Pinyin ile Taibei (okunuşu Taybey) diye yazılsa da, yabancı dillerde eski Wade-Giles sistemine göre Taipei olarak yazılması alışkanlık haline gelmiştir.[3]
Türkçeden bir örnek de, Pekin'dir; Çince Beijing (北京, okunuşu: Beycinğ) kelimesi, Türkçeye ilk olarak Pekin olarak girmişti. Son zamanlarda Pinyin sisteminin kullanımının yaygınlaşmasıyla birlikte Pekin şeklindeki yazılışa da medyada sıkça rastlanmaktadır.[kaynak belirtilmeli]
Çeşitli Çince romanizasyon sistemlerinin karşılaştırması ve en yakın Türkçe karşılıkları şöyledir:
BPMF | Wade-Giles | MPS II | Yale | Tongyong | Hanyu Pinyin | Gwoyeu Romatzyh | Türkçedeki yaklaşık karşılığı | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ㄚ | a | a | a | a | a | a | ar | aa | ah | a |
ㄞ | ai | ai | ai | ai | ai | ai | air | ae | ay | ay |
ㄢ | an | an | an | an | an | an | arn | aan | ann | an |
ㄤ | ang | ang | ang | ang | ang | ang | arng | aang | anq | anğ |
ㄠ | ao | au | au | ao | ao | au | aur | ao | aw | av |
ㄓㄚ | cha | ja | ja | jha | zha | ja | jar | jaa | jah | ca |
ㄔㄚ | ch'a | cha | cha | cha | cha | cha | char | chaa | chah | ça |
ㄓㄞ | chai | jai | jai | jhai | zhai | jai | jair | jae | jay | cay |
ㄔㄞ | ch'ai | chai | chai | chai | chai | chai | chair | chae | chay | çay |
ㄓㄢ | chan | jan | jan | jhan | zhan | jan | jarn | jaan | jann | can |
ㄔㄢ | ch'an | chan | chan | chan | chan | chan | charn | chaan | chann | çan |
ㄓㄤ | chang | jang | jang | jhang | zhang | jang | jarng | jaang | janq | canğ |
ㄔㄤ | ch'ang | chang | chang | chang | chang | chang | charng | chaang | chanq | çanğ |
ㄓㄠ | chao | jau | jau | jhao | zhao | jau | jaur | jao | jaw | cav |
ㄔㄠ | ch'ao | chau | chau | chao | chao | chau | chaur | chao | chaw | çav |
ㄓㄜ | che | je | je | jhe | zhe | je | jer | jee | jeh | cı |
ㄔㄜ | ch'e | che | che | che | che | che | cher | chee | cheh | çı |
ㄓㄟ | chei | jei | jei | jhei | zhei | jei | jeir | jeei | jey | cey |
ㄓㄣ | chen | jen | jen | jhen | zhen | jen | jern | jeen | jenn | cın |
ㄔㄣ | ch'en | chen | chen | chen | chen | chen | chern | cheen | chenn | çın |
ㄓㄥ | cheng | jeng | jeng | jheng | zheng | jeng | jerng | jeeng | jenq | cınğ |
ㄔㄥ | ch'eng | cheng | cheng | cheng | cheng | cheng | cherng | cheeng | chenq | çınğ |
ㄐㄧ | chi | ji | ji | ji | ji | ji | jyi | jii | jih | ci |
ㄑㄧ | ch'i | chi | chi | ci | qi | chi | chyi | chii | chih | çi |
ㄐㄧㄚ | chia | jia | jya | jia | jia | jia | jya | jea | jiah | cia |
ㄑㄧㄚ | ch'ia | chia | chya | cia | qia | chia | chya | chea | chiah | çia |
ㄐㄧㄤ | chiang | jiang | jyang | jiang | jiang | jiang | jyang | jeang | jianq | cianğ |
ㄑㄧㄤ | ch'iang | chiang | chyang | ciang | qiang | chiang | chyang | cheang | chianq | çianğ |
ㄐㄧㄠ | chiao | jiau | jyau | jiao | jiao | jiau | jyau | jeau | jiaw | ciav |
ㄑㄧㄠ | ch'iao | chiau | chyau | ciao | qiao | chiau | chyau | cheau | chiaw | çiav |
ㄐㄧㄝ | chieh | jie | jye | jie | jie | jie | jye | jiee | jieh | cie |
ㄑㄧㄝ | ch'ieh | chie | chye | cie | qie | chie | chye | chiee | chieh | çie |
ㄐㄧㄢ | chien | jian | jyan | jian | jian | jian | jyan | jean | jiann | cien |
ㄑㄧㄢ | ch'ien | chian | chyan | cian | qian | chian | chyan | chean | chiann | çien |
ㄓ | chih | jr | jr | jhih | zhi | jy | jyr | jyy | jyh | cığ |
ㄔ | ch'ih | chr | chr | chih | chi | chy | chyr | chyy | chyh | çığ |
ㄐㄧㄣ | chin | jin | jin | jin | jin | jin | jyn | jiin | jinn | cin |
ㄑㄧㄣ | ch'in | chin | chin | cin | qin | chin | chyn | chiin | chinn | çin |
ㄐㄧㄥ | ching | jing | jing | jing | jing | jing | jyng | jiing | jinq | cinğ |
ㄑㄧㄥ | ch'ing | ching | ching | cing | qing | ching | chyng | chiing | chinq | çinğ |
ㄐㄧㄡ | chiu | jiou | jyou | jiou | jiu | jiou | jyou | jeou | jiow | ciu |
ㄑㄧㄡ | ch'iu | chiou | chyou | ciou | qiu | chiou | chyou | cheou | chiow | çiu |
ㄐㄩㄥ | chiung | jiung | jyung | jyong | jiong | jiong | jyong | jeong | jionq | cionğ |
ㄑㄩㄥ | ch'iung | chiung | chyung | cyong | qiong | chiong | chyong | cheong | chionq | çionğ |
ㄓㄨㄛ | cho | juo | jwo | jhuo | zhuo | juo | jwo | juoo | cuo | |
ㄔㄨㄛ | ch'o | chuo | chwo | chuo | chuo | chuo | chwo | chuoo | çuo | |
ㄓㄡ | chou | jou | jou | jhou | zhou | jou | jour | joou | cov | |
ㄔㄡ | ch'ou | chou | chou | chou | chou | chou | chour | choou | çov | |
ㄓㄨ | chu | ju | ju | jhu | zhu | ju | jwu | juu | juh | cu |
ㄔㄨ | ch'u | chu | chu | chu | chu | chu | chwu | chuu | çu | |
ㄓㄨㄚ | chua | jua | jwa | jhua | zhua | jua | jwa | joa | cua | |
ㄔㄨㄚ | ch'ua | chua | chwa | chua | chua | chua | chuar | chuaa | çua | |
ㄓㄨㄞ | chuai | juai | jwai | jhuai | zhuai | juai | jwai | joai | cuay | |
ㄔㄨㄞ | ch'uai | chuai | chwai | chuai | chuai | chuai | chwai | choai | çuay | |
ㄓㄨㄢ | chuan | juan | jwan | jhuan | zhuan | juan | jwan | joan | cuen | |
ㄔㄨㄢ | ch'uan | chuan | chwan | chuan | chuan | chuan | chwan | choan | çuen | |
ㄓㄨㄤ | chuang | juang | jwang | jhuang | zhuang | juang | jwang | joang | cuanğ | |
ㄔㄨㄤ | ch'uang | chuang | chwang | chuang | chuang | chuang | chwang | choang | çuanğ | |
ㄓㄨㄟ | chui | juei | jwei | jhuei | zhui | juei | jwei | joei | cui | |
ㄔㄨㄟ | ch'ui | chuei | chwei | chuei | chui | chuei | chwei | choei | çui | |
ㄓㄨㄣ | chun | juen | jwen | jhun | zhun | juen | jwen | joen | cun | |
ㄔㄨㄣ | ch'un | chuen | chwen | chun | chun | chuen | chwen | choen | çun | |
ㄓㄨㄥ | chung | jung | jung | jhong | zhong | jong | jorng | joong | conğ | |
ㄔㄨㄥ | ch'ung | chung | chung | chong | chong | chong | chorng | choong | çonğ | |
ㄐㄩ | chü | jiu | jyu | jyu | ju | jiu | jyu | jeu | jiuh | cü |
ㄑㄩ | ch'ü | chiu | chyu | cyu | qu | chiu | chyu | cheu | chiuh | çü |
ㄐㄩㄢ | chüan | jiuan | jywan | jyuan | juan | jiuan | jyuan | jeuan | jiuann | cüen |
ㄑㄩㄢ | ch'üan | chiuan | chywan | cyuan | quan | chiuan | chyuan | cheuan | chiuann | çüen |
ㄐㄩㄝ | chüeh | jiue | jywe | jyue | jue | jiue | jyue | jeue | jiueh | cüe |
ㄑㄩㄝ | ch'üeh | chiue | chywe | cyue | que | chiue | chyue | cheue | chiueh | çüe |
ㄐㄩㄣ | chün | jiun | jyun | jyun | jun | jiun | jyun | jeun | jiunn | cün |
ㄑㄩㄣ | ch'ün | chiun | chyun | cyun | qun | chiun | chyun | cheun | chiunn | çün |
ㄜ | e | e | e | e | e | e | er | ee | eh | ı |
ㄟ | ei | ei | ei | ei | ei | ei | eir | eei | ey | ey |
ㄣ | en | en | en | en | en | en | ern | een | enn | ın |
ㄦ | erh | er | er | er | er | el | erl | eel | ır | |
ㄈㄚ | fa | fa | fa | fa | fa | fa | far | faa | fah | fa |
ㄈㄢ | fan | fan | fan | fan | fan | fan | farn | faan | fann | fan |
ㄈㄤ | fang | fang | fang | fang | fang | fang | farng | faang | fanq | fanğ |
ㄈㄟ | fei | fei | fei | fei | fei | fei | feir | feei | fey | fey |
ㄈㄣ | fen | fen | fen | fen | fen | fen | fern | feen | fenn | fın |
ㄈㄥ | feng | feng | feng | fong | feng | feng | ferng | feeng | fenq | fınğ |
ㄈㄛ | fo | fo | fwo | fo | fo | fo | for | foo | foh | fo |
ㄈㄡ | fou | fou | fou | fou | fou | fou | four | foou | fov | |
ㄈㄨ | fu | fu | fu | fu | fu | fu | fwu | fuu | fuh | fu |
ㄏㄚ | ha | ha | ha | ha | ha | ha | har | haa | hah | ha |
ㄏㄞ | hai | hai | hai | hai | hai | hai | hair | hae | hay | hay |
ㄏㄢ | han | han | han | han | han | han | harn | haan | hann | han |
ㄏㄤ | hang | hang | hang | hang | hang | hang | harng | haang | hanq | hanğ |
ㄏㄠ | hao | hau | hau | hao | hao | hau | haur | hao | haw | hav |
ㄏㄟ | hei | hei | hei | hei | hei | hei | heir | heei | hey | hey |
ㄏㄣ | hen | hen | hen | hen | hen | hen | hern | heen | henn | hın |
ㄏㄥ | heng | heng | heng | heng | heng | heng | herng | heeng | henq | hınğ |
ㄏㄜ | ho | he | he | he | he | he | her | hee | heh | hı |
ㄏㄡ | hou | hou | hou | hou | hou | hou | hour | hoou | hov | |
ㄒㄧ | hsi | shi | syi | si | xi | shi | shyi | shii | shih | şi |
ㄒㄧㄚ | hsia | shia | sya | sia | xia | shia | shya | shea | shiah | şia |
ㄒㄧㄤ | hsiang | shiang | syang | siang | xiang | shiang | shyang | sheang | shianq | şianğ |
ㄒㄧㄠ | hsiao | shiau | syau | siao | xiao | shiau | shyau | sheau | shiaw | şiav |
ㄒㄧㄝ | hsieh | shie | sye | sie | xie | shie | shye | shiee | shieh | şie |
ㄒㄧㄢ | hsien | shian | syan | sian | xian | shian | shyan | shean | shiann | şien |
ㄒㄧㄣ | hsin | shin | syin | sin | xin | shin | shyn | shiin | shinn | şin |
ㄒㄧㄥ | hsing | shing | sying | sing | shing | shyng | shiing | shinq | şinğ | |
ㄒㄧㄡ | hsiu | shiou | syou | siou | xiu | shiou | shyou | sheou | shiow | şiu |
ㄒㄩㄥ | hsiung | shiung | syung | syong | xiong | shiong | shyong | sheong | shionq | şionğ |
ㄒㄩ | hsü | shiu | syu | syu | xu | shiu | shyu | sheu | shiuh | şü |
ㄒㄩㄢ | hsüan | shiuan | sywan | syuan | xuan | shiuan | shyuan | sheuan | shiuann | şüen |
ㄒㄩㄝ | hsüeh | shiue | sywe | syue | xue | shiue | shyue | sheue | shiueh | şüe |
ㄒㄩㄣ | hsün | shiun | syun | syun | xun | shiun | shyun | sheun | shiunn | şün |
ㄏㄨ | hu | hu | hu | hu | hu | hu | hwu | huu | huh | hu |
ㄏㄨㄚ | hua | hua | hwa | hua | hua | hua | hwa | hoa | huah | hua |
ㄏㄨㄞ | huai | huai | hwai | huai | huai | huai | hwai | hoai | huay | huay |
ㄏㄨㄢ | huan | huan | hwan | huan | huan | huan | hwan | hoan | huann | huan |
ㄏㄨㄤ | huang | huang | hwang | huang | huang | huang | hwang | hoang | huanq | huanğ |
ㄏㄨㄟ | hui | huei | hwei | huei | hui | huei | hwei | hoei | huey | hui |
ㄏㄨㄣ | hun | huen | hwen | hun | hun | huen | hwen | hoen | huenn | hun |
ㄏㄨㄥ | hung | hung | hung | hong | hong | hong | horng | hoong | honq | honğ |
ㄏㄨㄛ | huo | huo | hwo | huo | huo | huo | hwo | huoo | huoo | huo |
ㄧ | i | yi | yi | yi | yi | i | yi | yii | yih | i |
ㄖㄢ | jan | ran | ran | ran | ran | rhan | ran | raan | ran | ran |
ㄖㄤ | jang | rang | rang | rang | rang | rhang | rang | raang | rang | ranğ |
ㄖㄠ | jao | rau | rau | rao | rao | rhau | rau | rao | rao | rav |
ㄖㄜ | je | re | re | re | re | rhe | re | ree | rığ | |
ㄖㄣ | jen | ren | ren | ren | ren | rhen | ren | reen | renn | rın |
ㄖㄥ | jeng | reng | reng | reng | reng | rheng | reng | reeng | renq | rınğ |
ㄖ | jih | r | r | rih | ri | rhy | ry | ryy | rı | |
ㄖㄨㄛ | jo | ruo | rwo | ruo | ruo | rhuo | ruo | ruoo | ruo | |
ㄖㄡ | jou | rou | rou | rou | rou | rhou | rou | roou | rov | |
ㄖㄨ | ju | ru | ru | ru | ru | rhu | ru | ruu | ruh | ru |
ㄖㄨㄢ | juan | ruan | rwan | ruan | ruan | rhuan | ruan | roan | ruan | |
ㄖㄨㄟ | jui | ruei | rwei | ruei | rui | rhuei | ruei | roei | rui | |
ㄖㄨㄣ | jun | ruen | rwun | run | run | rhuen | ruen | roen | run | |
ㄖㄨㄥ | jung | rung | rung | rong | rong | rhong | rong | roong | ronq | ronğ |
ㄍㄚ | ka | ga | ga | ga | ga | ga | gar | gaa | gah | ga |
ㄎㄚ | k'a | ka | ka | ka | ka | ka | kar | kaa | kah | ka |
ㄍㄞ | kai | gai | gai | gai | gai | gai | gair | gae | gay | gay |
ㄎㄞ | k'ai | kai | kai | kai | kai | kai | kair | kae | kay | kay |
ㄍㄢ | kan | gan | gan | gan | gan | gan | garn | gaan | gann | gan |
ㄎㄢ | k'an | kan | kan | kan | kan | kan | karn | kaan | kann | kan |
ㄍㄤ | kang | gang | gang | gang | gang | gang | garng | gaang | ganq | ganğ |
ㄎㄤ | k'ang | kang | kang | kang | kang | kang | karng | kaang | kanq | kanğ |
ㄍㄠ | kao | gau | gau | gao | gao | gau | gaur | gao | gaw | gav |
ㄎㄠ | k'ao | kau | kau | kao | kao | kau | kaur | kao | kaw | kav |
ㄍㄟ | kei | gei | gei | gei | gei | gei | geir | geei | gey | gey |
ㄍㄣ | ken | gen | gen | gen | gen | gen | gern | geen | genn | gın |
ㄎㄣ | k'en | ken | ken | ken | ken | ken | kern | keen | kenn | kın |
ㄍㄥ | keng | geng | geng | geng | geng | geng | gerng | geeng | genq | gınğ |
ㄎㄥ | k'eng | keng | keng | keng | keng | keng | kerng | keeng | kenq | kınğ |
ㄍㄜ | ko | ge | ge | ge | ge | ge | ger | gee | geh | gı |
ㄎㄜ | k'o | ke | ke | ke | ke | ke | ker | kee | keh | kı |
ㄍㄡ | kou | gou | gou | gou | gou | gou | gour | goou | goğ | |
ㄎㄡ | k'ou | kou | kou | kou | kou | kou | kour | koou | koğ | |
ㄍㄨ | ku | gu | gu | gu | gu | gu | gwu | guu | guh | gu |
ㄎㄨ | k'u | ku | ku | ku | ku | ku | kwu | kuu | kuh | ku |
ㄍㄨㄚ | kua | gua | gwa | gua | gua | gua | gwa | goa | guah | gua |
ㄎㄨㄚ | k'ua | kua | kwa | kua | kua | kua | kwa | koa | kuah | kua |
ㄍㄨㄞ | kuai | guai | gwai | guai | guai | guai | gwai | goai | guay | guay |
ㄎㄨㄞ | k'uai | kuai | kwai | kuai | kuai | kuai | kwai | koai | kuay | kuay |
ㄍㄨㄢ | kuan | guan | gwan | guan | guan | guan | gwan | goan | guann | guan |
ㄎㄨㄢ | k'uan | kuan | kwan | kuan | kuan | kuan | kwan | koan | kuann | kuan |
ㄍㄨㄤ | kuang | guang | gwang | guang | guang | guang | gwang | goang | guanq | guanğ |
ㄎㄨㄤ | k'uang | kuang | kwang | kuang | kuang | kuang | kwang | koang | kuanq | kuanğ |
ㄍㄨㄟ | kuei | guei | gwei | guei | gui | guei | gwei | goei | guey | gui |
ㄎㄨㄟ | k'uei | kuei | kwei | kuei | kui | kuei | kwei | koei | kuey | kui |
ㄍㄨㄣ | kun | guen | gwun | gun | gun | guen | gwen | goen | guenn | gun |
ㄎㄨㄣ | k'un | kuen | kwen | kun | kun | kuen | kwen | koen | kuenn | kun |
ㄍㄨㄥ | kung | gung | gung | gong | gong | gong | gorng | goong | gonq | gonğ |
ㄎㄨㄥ | k'ung | kung | kung | kong | kong | kong | korng | koong | konq | konğ |
ㄍㄨㄛ | kuo | guo | gwo | guo | guo | guo | gwo | guoo | guoh | guo |
ㄎㄨㄛ | k'uo | kuo | kwo | kuo | kuo | kuo | kwo | kuoo | kuoh | kuo |
ㄌㄚ | la | la | la | la | la | lha | la | laa | lah | la |
ㄌㄞ | lai | lai | lai | lai | lai | lhai | lai | lae | lay | lay |
ㄌㄢ | lan | lan | lan | lan | lan | lhan | lan | laan | lann | lan |
ㄌㄤ | lang | lang | lang | lang | lang | lhang | lang | laang | lanq | lanğ |
ㄌㄠ | lao | lau | lau | lao | lao | lhau | lau | lao | law | lav |
ㄌㄜ | le | le | le | le | le | lhe | le | lee | leh | lı |
ㄌㄟ | lei | lei | lei | lei | lei | lhei | lei | leei | ley | ley |
ㄌㄥ | leng | leng | leng | leng | leng | lheng | leng | leeng | lenq | lınğ |
ㄌㄧ | li | li | li | li | li | lhi | li | lii | lih | li |
ㄌㄧㄚ | lia | lia | lya | lia | lia | lhia | lia | lea | liah | lia |
ㄌㄧㄤ | liang | liang | lyang | liang | liang | lhiang | liang | leang | lianq | lianğ |
ㄌㄧㄠ | liao | liau | lyau | liao | liao | lhiau | liau | leau | liaw | liav |
ㄌㄧㄝ | lieh | lie | lye | lie | lie | lhie | lie | liee | lieh | lie |
ㄌㄧㄢ | lien | lian | lyan | lian | lian | lhian | lian | lean | liann | lien |
ㄌㄧㄣ | lin | lin | lin | lin | lin | lhin | lin | liin | linn | lin |
ㄌㄧㄥ | ling | ling | ling | ling | ling | lhing | ling | liing | linq | linğ |
ㄌㄧㄡ | liu | liou | lyou | liou | liu | lhiou | liou | leou | liow | liu |
ㄌㄛ | lo | lo | lo | lo | lo | lo | lor | loo | loh | lo |
ㄌㄨㄛ | lo | luo | lwo | luo | luo | lhuo | luo | luoo | luoh | luo |
ㄌㄡ | lou | lou | lou | lou | lou | lhou | lou | loou | low | loğ |
ㄌㄨ | lu | lu | lu | lu | lu | lhu | lu | luu | luh | lu |
ㄌㄨㄢ | luan | luan | lwan | luan | luan | lhuan | luan | loan | luann | luan |
ㄌㄨㄣ | lun | luen | lwun | lun | lun | lhuen | luen | loen | luenn | lun |
ㄌㄨㄥ | lung | lung | lung | long | long | lhong | long | loong | lonq | lonğ |
ㄌㄩ | lü | liu | lyu | lyu | lü | lhiu | liu | leu | liuh | lü |
ㄌㄩㄝ | lüeh | liue | lywe | lyue | lüe | lhiue | liue | leue | liueh | lüe |
ㄌㄩㄣ | lün | liun | lyun | lyun | lün | lhiun | liun | leun | lün | |
ㄇㄚ | ma | ma | ma | ma | ma | mha | ma | maa | mah | ma |
ㄇㄞ | mai | mai | mai | mai | mai | mhai | mai | mae | may | may |
ㄇㄢ | man | man | man | man | man | mhan | man | maan | mann | man |
ㄇㄤ | mang | mang | mang | mang | mang | mhang | mang | maang | manq | manğ |
ㄇㄠ | mao | mau | mau | mao | mao | mhau | mau | mao | maw | mav |
ㄇㄜ | me | me | me | me | me | me | mer | mee | meh | mı |
ㄇㄟ | mei | mei | mei | mei | mei | mhei | mei | meei | mey | mei |
ㄇㄣ | men | men | men | men | men | mhen | men | meen | menn | mın |
ㄇㄥ | meng | meng | meng | meng | meng | mheng | meng | meeng | menq | mınğ |
ㄇㄧ | mi | mi | mi | mi | mi | mhi | mi | mii | mih | mi |
ㄇㄧㄠ | miao | miau | myau | miao | miao | mhiau | miau | meau | miaw | miav |
ㄇㄧㄝ | mieh | mie | mye | mie | mie | mhie | mie | miee | mieh | mie |
ㄇㄧㄢ | mien | mian | myan | mian | mian | mhian | mian | mean | miann | mien |
ㄇㄧㄣ | min | min | min | min | min | mhin | min | miin | minn | min |
ㄇㄧㄥ | ming | ming | ming | ming | ming | mhing | ming | miing | minq | minğ |
ㄇㄧㄡ | miu | miou | myou | miou | miu | mhiou | miou | meou | miow | miu |
ㄇㄛ | mo | mo | mwo | mo | mo | mho | mo | moo | moh | mo |
ㄇㄡ | mou | mou | mou | mou | mou | mhou | mou | moou | moğ | |
ㄇㄨ | mu | mu | mu | mu | mu | mhu | mu | muu | muh | mu |
ㄋㄚ | na | na | na | na | na | nha | na | naa | nah | na |
ㄋㄞ | nai | nai | nai | nai | nai | nhai | nai | nae | nay | nay |
ㄋㄢ | nan | nan | nan | nan | nan | nhan | nan | naan | nann | nan |
ㄋㄤ | nang | nang | nang | nang | nang | nhang | nang | naang | nanq | nanğ |
ㄋㄠ | nao | nau | nau | nao | nao | nhau | nau | nao | naw | nav |
ㄋㄜ | ne | ne | ne | ne | ne | nhe | ne | nee | neh | nı |
ㄋㄟ | nei | nei | nei | nei | nei | nhei | nei | neei | ney | |
ㄋㄣ | nen | nen | nen | nen | nen | nhen | nen | neen | nenn | nın |
ㄋㄥ | neng | neng | neng | neng | neng | nheng | neng | neeng | nenq | nınğ |
ㄋㄧ | ni | ni | ni | ni | ni | nhi | ni | nii | nih | ni |
ㄋㄧㄚ | nia | nia | nya | nia | nia | nia | niar | niaa | niah | nia |
ㄋㄧㄤ | niang | niang | nyang | niang | niang | nhiang | niang | neang | nianq | nianğ |
ㄋㄧㄠ | niao | niau | nyau | niao | niao | nhiau | niau | neau | niaw | niav |
ㄋㄧㄝ | nieh | nie | nye | nie | nie | nhie | nie | niee | nieh | nie |
ㄋㄧㄢ | nien | nian | nyan | nian | nian | nhian | nian | nean | niann | nien |
ㄋㄧㄣ | nin | nin | nin | nin | nin | nhin | nin | niin | ninn | nin |
ㄋㄧㄥ | ning | ning | ning | ning | ning | nhing | ning | niing | ninq | ninğ |
ㄋㄧㄡ | niu | niou | nyou | niou | niu | nhiou | niou | neou | niow | niu |
ㄋㄨㄛ | no | nuo | nwo | nuo | nuo | nhuo | nuo | nuoo | nuoh | nuo |
ㄋㄡ | nou | nou | nou | nou | nou | nhou | nou | noou | now | noğ |
ㄋㄨ | nu | nu | nu | nu | nu | nhu | nu | nuu | nuh | nu |
ㄋㄨㄢ | nuan | nuan | nwan | nuan | nuan | nhuan | nuan | noan | nuann | nuen |
ㄋㄨㄣ | nun | nuen | nwen | nun | nun | nhuen | nuen | noen | nuenn | nun |
ㄋㄨㄥ | nung | nung | nung | nong | nong | nhong | nong | noong | nonq | nonğ |
ㄋㄩ | nü | niu | nyu | nyu | nü | nhiu | niu | neu | niuh | nü |
ㄋㄩㄝ | nüeh | niue | nywe | nyue | nüe | nhiue | niue | neue | niueh | nüe |
ㄡ | ou | ou | ou | ou | ou | ou | our | oou | ow | oğ |
ㄅㄚ | pa | ba | ba | ba | ba | ba | bar | baa | bah | ba |
ㄆㄚ | p'a | pa | pa | pa | pa | pa | par | paa | pah | pa |
ㄅㄞ | pai | bai | bai | bai | bai | bai | bair | bae | bay | bay |
ㄆㄞ | p'ai | pai | pai | pai | pai | pai | pair | pae | pay | pay |
ㄅㄢ | pan | ban | ban | ban | ban | ban | barn | baan | bann | ban |
ㄆㄢ | p'an | pan | pan | pan | pan | pan | parn | paan | pann | pan |
ㄅㄤ | pang | bang | bang | bang | bang | bang | barng | baang | banq | banğ |
ㄆㄤ | p'ang | pang | pang | pang | pang | pang | parng | paang | panq | panğ |
ㄅㄠ | pao | bau | bau | bao | bao | bau | baur | bao | baw | bav |
ㄆㄠ | p'ao | pau | pau | pao | pao | pau | paur | pao | paw | pav |
ㄅㄟ | pei | bei | bei | bei | bei | bei | beir | beei | bey | bey |
ㄆㄟ | p'ei | pei | pei | pei | pei | pei | peir | peei | pey | pey |
ㄅㄣ | pen | ben | ben | ben | ben | ben | bern | been | benn | bın |
ㄆㄣ | p'en | pen | pen | pen | pen | pen | pern | peen | penn | pın |
ㄅㄥ | peng | beng | beng | beng | beng | beng | berng | beeng | benq | bınğ |
ㄆㄥ | p'eng | peng | peng | peng | peng | peng | perng | peeng | penq | pınğ |
ㄅㄧ | pi | bi | bi | bi | bi | bi | byi | bii | bih | bi |
ㄆㄧ | p'i | pi | pi | pi | pi | pi | pyi | pii | pih | pi |
ㄅㄧㄠ | piao | biau | byau | biao | biao | biau | byau | beau | biaw | biav |
ㄆㄧㄠ | p'iao | piau | pyau | piao | piao | piau | pyau | peau | piaw | piav |
ㄅㄧㄝ | pieh | bie | bye | bie | bie | bie | bye | biee | bieh | bie |
ㄆㄧㄝ | p'ieh | pie | pye | pie | pie | pie | pye | piee | pieh | pie |
ㄅㄧㄢ | pien | bian | byan | bian | bian | bian | byan | bean | biann | bien |
ㄆㄧㄢ | p'ien | pian | pyan | pian | pian | pian | pyan | pean | piann | pien |
ㄅㄧㄣ | pin | bin | bin | bin | bin | bin | byn | biin | binn | bin |
ㄆㄧㄣ | p'in | pin | pin | pin | pin | pin | pyn | piin | pinn | pin |
ㄅㄧㄥ | ping | bing | bing | bing | bing | bing | byng | biing | binq | binğ |
ㄆㄧㄥ | p'ing | ping | ping | ping | ping | ping | pyng | piing | pinq | pinğ |
ㄅㄛ | po | bo | bwo | bo | bo | bo | bor | boo | boh | bo |
ㄆㄛ | p'o | po | pwo | po | po | po | por | poo | poh | po |
ㄆㄡ | p'ou | pou | pou | pou | pou | pou | pour | poou | pow | poğ |
ㄅㄨ | pu | bu | bu | bu | bu | bu | bwu | buu | buh | bu |
ㄆㄨ | p'u | pu | pu | pu | pu | pu | pwu | puu | puh | pu |
ㄙㄚ | sa | sa | sa | sa | sa | sa | sar | saa | sah | sa |
ㄙㄞ | sai | sai | sai | sai | sai | sai | sair | sae | say | say |
ㄙㄢ | san | san | san | san | san | san | sarn | saan | sann | san |
ㄙㄤ | sang | sang | sang | sang | sang | sang | sarng | saang | sanq | sanğ |
ㄙㄠ | sao | sau | sau | sao | sao | sau | saur | sao | saw | sav |
ㄙㄜ | se | se | se | se | se | se | ser | see | seh | sığ |
ㄙㄟ | sei | sei | sei | sei | sei | sei | seir | seei | sey | sey |
ㄙㄣ | sen | sen | sen | sen | sen | sen | sern | seen | senn | sın |
ㄙㄥ | seng | seng | seng | seng | seng | seng | serng | seeng | senq | sınğ |
ㄕㄚ | sha | sha | sha | sha | sha | sha | shar | shaa | shah | şa |
ㄕㄞ | shai | shai | shai | shai | shai | shai | shair | shae | shay | şay |
ㄕㄢ | shan | shan | shan | shan | shan | shan | sharn | shaan | shann | şan |
ㄕㄤ | shang | shang | shang | shang | shang | shang | sharng | shaang | shanq | şanğ |
ㄕㄠ | shao | shau | shau | shao | shao | shau | shaur | shao | shaw | şav |
ㄕㄜ | she | she | she | she | she | she | sher | shee | sheh | şığ |
ㄕㄟ | shei | shei | shei | shei | shei | shei | sheir | sheei | shey | şey |
ㄕㄣ | shen | shen | shen | shen | shen | shen | shern | sheen | shenn | şın |
ㄕㄥ | sheng | sheng | sheng | sheng | sheng | sheng | sherng | sheeng | shenq | şınğ |
ㄕ | shih | shr | shr | shih | shi | shy | shyr | shyy | shyh | şı |
ㄕㄡ | shou | shou | shou | shou | shou | shou | shour | shoou | show | şo |
ㄕㄨ | shu | shu | shu | shu | shu | shu | shwu | shuu | shuh | şu |
ㄕㄨㄚ | shua | shua | shwa | shua | shua | shua | shwa | shoa | shuah | şua |
ㄕㄨㄞ | shuai | shuai | shwai | shuai | shuai | shuai | shwai | shoai | shuay | şuay |
ㄕㄨㄢ | shuan | shuan | shwan | shuan | shuan | shuan | shwan | shoan | shuann | şu an |
ㄕㄨㄤ | shuang | shuang | shwang | shuang | shuang | shuang | shwang | shoang | shuanq | şu anğ |
ㄕㄨㄟ | shui | shuei | shwei | shuei | shui | shuei | shwei | shoei | shuey | şuği |
ㄕㄨㄣ | shun | shuen | shwun | shun | shun | shuen | shwen | shoen | shuenn | şun |
ㄕㄨㄥ | shung | shung | shung | shong | shong | shong | shorng | shoong | shonq | şonğ |
ㄕㄨㄛ | shuo | shuo | shwo | shuo | shuo | shuo | shwo | shuoo | shuoh | şuo |
ㄙㄨㄛ | so | suo | swo | suo | suo | suo | swo | suoo | suoh | suo |
ㄙㄡ | sou | sou | sou | sou | sou | sou | sour | soou | sow | soğ |
ㄙ | ssu | sz | sz | sih | si | sy | syr | syy | syh | si |
ㄙㄨ | su | su | su | su | su | su | swu | suu | suh | su |
ㄙㄨㄢ | suan | suan | swan | suan | suan | suan | swan | soan | suann | suan |
ㄙㄨㄟ | sui | suei | swei | suei | sui | suei | swei | soei | suey | sui |
ㄙㄨㄣ | sun | suen | swen | sun | sun | suen | swen | soen | suenn | sun |
ㄙㄨㄥ | sung | sung | sung | song | song | song | sorng | soong | sonq | sonğ |
ㄉㄚ | ta | da | da | da | da | da | dar | daa | dah | da |
ㄊㄚ | t'a | ta | ta | ta | ta | ta | tar | taa | tah | ta |
ㄉㄞ | tai | dai | dai | dai | dai | dai | dair | dae | day | day |
ㄊㄞ | t'ai | tai | tai | tai | tai | tai | tair | tae | tay | tay |
ㄉㄢ | tan | dan | dan | dan | dan | dan | darn | daan | dann | dan |
ㄊㄢ | t'an | tan | tan | tan | tan | tan | tarn | taan | tann | tan |
ㄉㄤ | tang | dang | dang | dang | dang | dang | darng | daang | danq | danğ |
ㄊㄤ | t'ang | tang | tang | tang | tang | tang | tarng | taang | tanq | tanğ |
ㄉㄠ | tao | dau | dau | dao | dao | dau | daur | dao | daw | dav |
ㄊㄠ | t'ao | tau | tau | tao | tao | tau | taur | tao | taw | tav |
ㄉㄜ | te | de | de | de | de | de | der | dee | deh | dı |
ㄊㄜ | t'e | te | te | te | te | te | ter | tee | teh | tı |
ㄉㄟ | tei | dei | dei | dei | dei | dei | deir | deei | dey | dey |
ㄉㄣ | ten | den | den | den | den | den | dern | deen | denn | dın |
ㄉㄥ | teng | deng | deng | deng | deng | deng | derng | deeng | denq | dınğ |
ㄊㄥ | t'eng | teng | teng | teng | teng | teng | terng | teeng | tenq | tınğ |
ㄉㄧ | ti | di | di | di | di | di | dyi | dii | dih | di |
ㄊㄧ | t'i | ti | ti | ti | ti | ti | tyi | tii | tih | ti |
ㄉㄧㄤ | tiang | diang | dyang | diang | diang | diang | dyang | deang | dianq | dianğ |
ㄉㄧㄠ | tiao | diau | dyau | diao | diao | diau | dyau | deau | diaw | diav |
ㄊㄧㄠ | t'iao | tiau | tyau | tiao | tiao | tiau | tyau | teau | tiaw | tiav |
ㄉㄧㄝ | tieh | die | dye | die | die | die | dye | diee | dieh | die |
ㄊㄧㄝ | t'ieh | tie | tye | tie | tie | tie | tye | tiee | tieh | tie |
ㄉㄧㄢ | tien | dian | dyan | dian | dian | dian | dyan | dean | diann | dien |
ㄊㄧㄢ | t'ien | tian | tyan | tian | tian | tian | tyan | tean | tiann | tien |
ㄉㄧㄥ | ting | ding | ding | ding | ding | ding | dyng | diing | dinq | dinğ |
ㄊㄧㄥ | t'ing | ting | ting | ting | ting | ting | tyng | tiing | tinq | tinğ |
ㄉㄧㄡ | tiu | diou | dyou | diou | diu | diou | dyou | deou | diow | diu |
ㄉㄨㄛ | to | duo | dwo | duo | duo | duo | dwo | duoo | duoh | duo |
ㄊㄨㄛ | t'o | tuo | two | tuo | tuo | tuo | two | tuoo | tuoh | tuo |
ㄉㄡ | tou | dou | dou | dou | dou | dou | dour | doou | dow | doğ |
ㄊㄡ | t'ou | tou | tou | tou | tou | tou | tour | toou | tow | toğ |
ㄗㄚ | tsa | tza | dza | za | za | tza | tzar | tzaa | tzah | dza |
ㄘㄚ | ts'a | tsa | tsa | ca | ca | tsa | tsar | tsaa | tsah | tsa |
ㄗㄞ | tsai | tzai | dzai | zai | zai | tzai | tzair | tzae | tzay | dzay |
ㄘㄞ | ts'ai | tsai | tsai | cai | cai | tsai | tsair | tsae | tsay | tsay |
ㄗㄢ | tsan | tzan | dzan | zan | zan | tzan | tzarn | tzaan | tzann | dzan |
ㄘㄢ | ts'an | tsan | tsan | can | can | tsan | tsarn | tsaan | tsann | tsan |
ㄗㄤ | tsang | tzang | dzang | zang | zang | tzang | tzarng | tzaang | tzanq | dzanğ |
ㄘㄤ | ts'ang | tsang | tsang | cang | cang | tsang | tsarng | tsaang | tsanq | tsanğ |
ㄗㄠ | tsao | tzau | dzau | zao | zao | tzau | tzaur | tzao | tzaw | dzav |
ㄘㄠ | ts'ao | tsau | tsau | cao | cao | tsau | tsaur | tsao | tsaw | tsav |
ㄗㄜ | tse | tze | dze | ze | ze | tze | tzer | tzee | tzeh | dzığ |
ㄘㄜ | ts'e | tse | tse | ce | ce | tse | tser | tsee | tseh | tsığ |
ㄗㄟ | tsei | tzei | dzei | zei | zei | tzei | tzeir | tzeei | tzey | dzey |
ㄗㄣ | tsen | tzen | dzen | zen | zen | tzen | tzern | tzeen | tzenn | dzın |
ㄘㄣ | ts'en | tsen | tsen | cen | cen | tsen | tsern | tseen | tsenn | tsın |
ㄗㄥ | tseng | tzeng | dzeng | zeng | zeng | tzeng | tzerng | tzeeng | tzenq | dzınğ |
ㄘㄥ | ts'eng | tseng | tseng | ceng | ceng | tseng | tserng | tseeng | tsenq | tsınğ |
ㄗㄨㄛ | tso | tzuo | dzwo | zuo | zuo | tzuo | tzwo | tzuoo | tzuoh | dzuo |
ㄘㄨㄛ | ts'o | tsuo | tswo | cuo | cuo | tsuo | tswo | tsuoo | tsuoh | tsuo |
ㄗㄡ | tsou | tzou | dzou | zou | zou | tzou | tzour | tzoou | tzow | dzoğ |
ㄘㄡ | ts'ou | tsou | tsou | cou | cou | tsou | tsour | tsoou | tsow | tsoğ |
ㄗㄨ | tsu | tzu | dzu | zu | zu | tzu | tzwu | tzuu | tzuh | dzu |
ㄘㄨ | ts'u | tsu | tsu | cu | cu | tsu | tswu | tsuu | tsuh | tsu |
ㄗㄨㄢ | tsuan | tzuan | dzwan | zuan | zuan | tzuan | tzwan | tzoan | tzuann | dzuan |
ㄘㄨㄢ | ts'uan | tsuan | tsu | cuan | cuan | tsuan | tswan | tsoan | tsuann | tsuan |
ㄗㄨㄟ | tsui | tzuei | dzwei | zuei | zui | tzuei | tzwei | tzoei | tzuey | dzui |
ㄘㄨㄟ | ts'ui | tsuei | tswei | cuei | cui | tsuei | tswei | tsoei | tsuey | tsui |
ㄗㄨㄣ | tsun | tzuen | dzwen | zun | zun | tzuen | tzwen | tzoen | tzuenn | dzun |
ㄘㄨㄣ | ts'un | tsuen | tswen | cun | cun | tsuen | tswen | tsoen | tsuenn | tsun |
ㄗㄨㄥ | tsung | tzung | dzung | zong | zong | tzong | tzorng | tzoong | tzonq | dzonğ |
ㄘㄨㄥ | ts'ung | tsung | tsung | cong | cong | tsong | tsorng | tsoong | tsonq | tsonğ |
ㄉㄨ | tu | du | du | du | du | du | dwu | duu | duh | du |
ㄊㄨ | t'u | tu | tu | tu | tu | tu | twu | tuu | tuh | tu |
ㄉㄨㄢ | tuan | duan | dwan | duan | duan | duan | dwan | doan | duann | duan |
ㄊㄨㄢ | t'uan | tuan | twan | tuan | tuan | tuan | twan | toan | tuann | tuan |
ㄉㄨㄟ | tui | duei | dwei | duei | dui | duei | dwei | doei | duey | dui |
ㄊㄨㄟ | t'ui | tuei | twei | tuei | tui | tuei | twei | toei | tuey | tui |
ㄉㄨㄣ | tun | duen | dwen | dun | dun | duen | dwen | doen | duenn | dun |
ㄊㄨㄣ | t'un | tuen | twen | tun | tun | tuen | twen | toen | tuenn | tun |
ㄉㄨㄥ | tung | dung | dung | dong | dong | dong | dorng | doong | donq | donğ |
ㄊㄨㄥ | t'ung | tung | tung | tong | tong | tong | torng | toong | tonq | tonğ |
ㄗ | tzu | tz | dz | zih | zi | tzy | tzyr | tzyy | tzyh | zı |
ㄘ | tz'u | tsz | tsz | cih | ci | tsy | tsyr | tsyy | tsyh | tsı |
ㄨㄚ | wa | wa | wa | wa | wa | ua | wa | waa | wah | va |
ㄨㄞ | wai | wai | wai | wai | wai | uai | wai | woai | way | vay |
ㄨㄢ | wan | wan | wan | wan | wan | uan | wan | woan | wann | van |
ㄨㄤ | wang | wang | wang | wang | wang | uang | wang | woang | wanq | vanğ |
ㄨㄟ | wei | wei | wei | wei | wei | uei | wei | woei | wey | vey |
ㄨㄣ | wen | wen | wen | wun | wen | uen | wen | woen | wenn | vın |
ㄨㄥ | weng | weng | weng | wong | weng | ueng | weng | woeng | wenq | vınğ |
ㄨㄛ | wo | wo | wo | wo | wo | uo | wo | woo | woh | uo |
ㄨ | wu | wu | wu | wu | wu | u | wu | wuu | wuh | u |
ㄧㄚ | ya | ya | ya | ya | ya | ia | ya | yea | yah | ya |
ㄧㄢ | yan | yan | yan | yan | yan | ian | yan | yean | yann | yen |
ㄧㄤ | yang | yang | yang | yang | yang | iang | yang | yeang | yanq | yanğ |
ㄧㄠ | yao | yau | yau | yao | yao | iau | yau | yeau | yaw | yav |
ㄧㄝ | yeh | ye | ye | ye | ye | ie | ye | yee | yeh | ye |
ㄧㄣ | yin | yin | yin | yin | yin | in | yn | yiin | yinn | in |
ㄧㄥ | ying | ying | ying | ying | ying | ing | yng | yiing | yinq | inğ |
ㄧㄡ | yu | you | you | you | you | iou | you | yeou | yow | you |
ㄩㄥ | yung | yung | yung | yong | yong | iong | yong | yeong | yonq | yonğ |
ㄩ | yü | yu | yu | yu | yu | iu | yu | yeu | yuh | ü |
ㄩㄢ | yüan | yuan | ywan | yuan | yuan | iuan | yuan | yeuan | yuann | yüen |
ㄩㄝ | yüeh | yue | ywe | yue | yue | iue | yue | yeue | yueh | yüe |
ㄩㄣ | yün | yun | yun | yun | yun | iun | yun | yeun | yunn | yün |
Pinyinin telaffuzu
değiştirPinyin | IPA | Türkçedeki karşılığı |
---|---|---|
b | [p] | b[kaynak belirtilmeli] |
p | [pʰ] | p |
m | [m] | m |
f | [f] | f |
d | [t] | d[kaynak belirtilmeli] |
t | [tʰ] | t |
n | [n] | n |
l | [l] | l |
g | [k] | g[kaynak belirtilmeli] |
k | [kʰ] | k |
h | [x] | h[kaynak belirtilmeli] |
j | [tɕ] | c[kaynak belirtilmeli] |
q | [tɕʰ] | ç |
x | [ɕ] | ş |
zh | [tʂ] | c[kaynak belirtilmeli] |
ch | [tʂʰ] | ç |
sh | [ʂ] | ş |
r | [ʐ] or [ɻ] | r |
z | [ts] | z |
c | [tsʰ] | ts |
s | [s] | s |
Tonlar
değiştirPinyin sisteminde Standart Çince'de yer alan dört ton şöyle belirtilir:
- Birinci ton: (düz ya da yüksek ton) (ˉ)
ā (ɑ̄) ē ī ō ū ǖ Ā Ē Ī Ō Ū Ǖ
- İkinci ton: (yükselen ton) (ˊ)
á (ɑ́) é í ó ú ǘ Á É Í Ó Ú Ǘ
- Üçüncü ton: (düşük veya alçak ton) (ˇ)
ǎ (ɑ̌) ě ǐ ǒ ǔ ǚ Ǎ Ě Ǐ Ǒ Ǔ Ǚ
- Dördüncü ton: (düşen ton): (ˋ)
à (ɑ̀) è ì ò ù ǜ À È Ì Ò Ù Ǜ
- Beşinci ton (nötr ton): (Bu ton için herhangi bir işaret kullanılmaz)
a (ɑ) e i o u ü A E I O U Ü
Bu tonlar genellikle Çince ders kitapları dışında pek kullanılmazlar. Ancak doğru telaffuz için gereklidirler.
Diğer Diller
değiştirÇincenin farklı varyantları için Pinyin benzeri sistemler geliştirilmiştir. Örneğin Guangdong eyaleti hükûmeti tarafından eyalette konuşulan diller için Guangdong romanizasyonu adı verilen bir sistem geliştirilmiştir.
Bunun dışında 1976'da alınan bir kararla, azınlık bölgelerindeki azınlık diliyle anılan yer isimlerinin de pinyindeki 26 harf ile yazılması kararlaştırılmıştır:
Geleneksel | Resmi (yerel ismin pinyini) | Çince isim | Çince ismin pinyini |
---|---|---|---|
Shigatse | Xigazê | 日喀则 | Rìkāzé |
Urumçi | Ürümchi | 乌鲁木齐 | Wūlǔmùqí |
Lhasa | Lhasa | 拉萨 | Lāsà |
Golmud | Golmud | 格尔木 | Gé'ěrmù |
Kaynakça
değiştir- ^ Stwertka, Albert (2018). A guide to the elements (4. bas.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0190682347.
- ^ Robinson, Andrew (2009). Writing and script: a very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199567782.
- ^ Copper, John Franklin (2015). Historical dictionary of Taiwan (4. bas.). Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1442243064.