Büyük Selçuklu İmparatorluğu: Revizyonlar arasındaki fark
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85. satır:
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'''Büyük Selçuklu İmparatorluğu''' ({{dil-fa|
* Meisami, Julie Scott, ''Persian Historiography to the End of the Twelfth Century'', (Edinburgh University Press, 1999), 143; "Nizam al-Mulk also attempted to organise the Saljuq administration according to the Persianate Ghaznavid model..."
* ''[[Encyclopaedia Iranica]]'', "[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sahrbanu Šahrbānu]", Online Edition: "... here one might bear in mind that non-Persian dynasties such as the Ghaznavids, Saljuqs and Ilkhanids were rapidly to adopt the Persian language and have their origins traced back to the ancient kings of Persia rather than to Turkmen heroes or Muslim saints ..."
92. satır:
* Jonathan Dewald, ''Europe 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World'', Charles Scribner's Sons, 2004, p. 24: "Turcoman armies coming from the East had driven the Byzantines out of much of Asia Minor and established the Persianized sultanate of the Seljuks."
* [[Grousset, Rene]], ''The Empire of the Steppes'', (Rutgers University Press, 1991), 161, 164; "renewed the Seljuk attempt to found a great Turko-Persian empire in eastern Iran." "It is to be noted that the Seljuks, those Turkomans who became sultans of Persia, did not Turkify Persia-no doubt because they did not wish to do so. On the contrary, it was they who voluntarily became Persians and who, in the manner of the great old Sassanid kings, strove to protect the Iranian populations from the plundering of Ghuzz bands and save Iranian culture from the Turkoman menace."
* Possessors and possessed: museums, archaeology, and the visualization of history in the late Ottoman Empire; By Wendy M. K. Shaw; Published by University of California Press, 2003, {{ISBN
* Bosworth, C. E. (2001). Notes on Some Turkish Names in Abu 'l-Fadl Bayhaqi's Tarikh-i Mas'udi. Oriens, Vol. 36, 2001 (2001), pp. 299–313.
* Dani, A. H., Masson, V. M. (Eds), Asimova, M. S. (Eds), Litvinsky, B. A. (Eds), Boaworth, C. E. (Eds). (1999). History of Civilizations of Central Asia. [[Motilal Banarsidass Publishers]] (Pvt. Ltd).
* [[Ian Hancock|Hancock, I.]] (2006). ON ROMANI ORIGINS AND IDENTITY. The Romani Archives and Documentation Center. [[The University of Texas at Austin]].
* Asimov, M. S., Bosworth, C. E. (eds.). (1998). History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. IV: The Age of Achievement: AD 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century, Part One: The Historical, Social and Economic Setting. Multiple History Series. Paris: UNESCO Publishing.
* Dani, A. H., Masson, V. M. (Eds), Asimova, M. S. (Eds), Litvinsky, B. A. (Eds), Boaworth, C. E. (Eds). (1999). History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers (Pvt. Ltd).</ref> [[Hindukuş Dağları]]'ndan [[Batı Anadolu]]'ya ve [[Orta Asya]]'dan [[Basra Körfezi]]'ne kadar uzanan geniş bir alanı kontrol etti. [[Aral Gölü]] yakınındaki memleketlerinde güç kazandıktan sonra ilk olarak [[Büyük Horasan|Horasan]]'ı ele geçiren Selçuklular, buradan [[İran]] içlerine doğru ilerledi ve ardından [[Anadolu]]'daki şehirleri kontrol altına aldı.
Büyük Selçuklu İmparatorluğu, [[Tuğrul|Tuğrul Bey]] (1016–63) tarafından 1037'de kuruldu. Tuğrul'u büyüten dedesi ve [[Oğuz Yabguluğu|Oğuz Yabgu Devleti]]'nde yüksek makam sahibi olan [[Selçuk Bey]], adını hem ülkeyi yöneten [[Selçuklular|hanedana]] hem de imparatorluğa verdi. Devlet kurulduktan kısa süre sonra [[İslam dünyası]]nın merkezi otoriteden yoksun parçalanmış siyasi haritasını birleştirdi ve daha sonra [[Haçlı Seferleri]]nin [[Birinci Haçlı Seferi|birinci]] ve [[İkinci Haçlı Seferi|ikinci]]sinde kilit rol oynadı. Dili ve kültürüyle yoğun bir şekilde [[Persleşmek|İranlılaşan]] Selçuklular,<ref>* ''[[Encyclopaedia Iranica]]'', "[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sahrbanu Šahrbānu]", Online Edition: "... here one might bear in mind that non-Persian dynasties such as the Ghaznavids, Saljuqs and Ilkhanids were rapidly to adopt the Persian language and have their origins traced back to the ancient kings of Persia rather than to Turkmen heroes or Muslim saints ..."
* Josef W. Meri, "Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia", Routledge, 2005, p. 399
* Michael Mandelbaum, "Central Asia and the World", Council on Foreign Relations (May 1994), p. 79
* Jonathan Dewald, "Europe 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World", Charles Scribner's Sons, 2004, p. 24: "Turcoman armies coming from the East had driven the Byzantines out of much of Asia Minor and established the Persianized sultanate of the Seljuks."</ref><ref>* C.E. Bosworth, "Turkmen Expansion towards the west" in ''UNESCO History of Humanity'', Volume IV, titled "From the Seventh to the Sixteenth Century", UNESCO Publishing / Routledge, p. 391: "While the Arabic language retained its primacy in such spheres as law, theology and science, the culture of the Seljuk court and secular literature within the sultanate became largely Persianized; this is seen in the early adoption of Persian epic names by the Seljuk rulers (Qubād, Kay Khusraw and so on) and in the use of Persian as a literary language (Turkmen must have been essentially a vehicle for everyday speech at this time). The process of Persianization accelerated in the thirteenth century with the presence in Konya of two of the most distinguished refugees fleeing before the Mongols, Bahā' al-Dīn Walad and his son Mawlānā Jalāl al-Dīn Rūmī, whose ''Mathnawī'', composed in Konya, constitutes one of the crowning glories of classical Persian literature."
* Mehmed Fuad Köprülü, "Early Mystics in Turkish Literature", Translated by Gary Leiser and Robert Dankoff, Routledge, 2006, pg 149: "If we wish to sketch, in broad outline, the civilization created by the Seljuks of Anatolia, we must recognize that the local—i.e., non-Muslim, element was fairly insignificant compared to the Turkish and Arab-Persian elements, and that the Persian element was paramount. The Seljuk rulers, to be sure, who were in contact with not only Muslim Persian civilization, but also with the Arab civilizations in al-jazlra and Syria—indeed, with all Muslim peoples as far as India—also had connections with {various} Byzantine courts. Some of these rulers, like the great 'Ala' al-Dln Kai-Qubad I himself, who married Byzantine princesses and thus strengthened relations with their neighbors to the west, lived for many years in Byzantium and became very familiar with the customs and ceremonial at the Byzantine court. Still, this close contact with the ancient Greco-Roman and Christian traditions only resulted in their adoption of a policy of tolerance toward art, aesthetic life, painting, music, independent thought—in short, toward those things that were frowned upon by the narrow and piously ascetic views {of their subjects}. The contact of the common people with the Greeks and Armenians had basically the same result. {Before coming to Anatolia,} the Turkmens had been in contact with many nations and had long shown their ability to synthesize the artistic elements that thev had adopted from these nations. When they settled in Anatolia, they encountered peoples with whom they had not yet been in contact and immediately established relations with them as well. Ala al-Din Kai-Qubad I established ties with the Genoese and, especially, the Venetians at the ports of Sinop and Antalya, which belonged to him, and granted them commercial and legal concessions. Meanwhile, the Mongol invasion, which caused a great number of scholars and artisans to flee from Turkmenistan, Iran, and Khwarazm and settle within the Empire of the Seljuks of Anatolia, resulted in a reinforcing of Persian influence on the Anatolian Turks. Indeed, despite all claims to the contrary, there is no question that Persian influence was paramount among the Seljuks of Anatolia. This is clearly revealed by the fact that the sultans who ascended the throne after Ghiyath al-Din Kai-Khusraw I assumed titles taken from ancient Persian mythology, like Kai-Khusraw, Kai-Ka us, and Kai-Qubad; and that. Ala' al-Din Kai-Qubad I had some passages from the Shahname inscribed on the walls of Konya and Sivas. When we take into consideration domestic life in the Konya courts and the sincerity of the favor and attachment of the rulers to Persian poets and Persian literature, then this fact {i.e., the importance of Persian influence} is undeniable. With- regard to the private lives of the rulers, their amusements, and palace ceremonial, the most definite influence was also that of Iran, mixed with the early Turkish traditions, and not that of Byzantium."
* Stephen P. Blake, ''[[Shahjahanabad]]: The Sovereign City in Mughal India, 1639–1739''. Cambridge University Press, 1991. pg 123: "For the Seljuks and Il-Khanids in Iran it was the rulers rather than the conquered who were "Persianized and Islamicized"</ref><ref>* ''[[Encyclopaedia Iranica]]'', "[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sahrbanu Šahrbānu]", Online Edition: "... here one might bear in mind that non-Persian dynasties such as the Ghaznavids, Saljuqs and Ilkhanids were rapidly to adopt the Persian language and have their origins traced back to the ancient kings of Persia rather than to Turkmen heroes or Muslim saints ..."
* O.Özgündenli, "[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/ot_grp7/ot_pers_mss_ott_20050106.html Persian Manuscripts in Ottoman and Modern Turkish Libraries] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120122005207/http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/ot_grp7/ot_pers_mss_ott_20050106.html |date=2012-01-22 }}", ''[[Encyclopaedia Iranica]]'', Online Edition
* ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', "[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066688 Seljuq]", Online Edition: "... Because the Turkish Seljuqs had no Islamic tradition or strong literary heritage of their own, they adopted the cultural language of their Persian instructors in Islam. Literary Persian thus spread to the whole of Iran, and the Arabic language disappeared in that country except in works of religious scholarship ..."
* M. Ravandi, "The Seljuq court at Konya and the Persianisation of Anatolian Cities", in ''Mesogeios (Mediterranean Studies)'', vol. 25-6 (2005), pp. 157–69
* F. Daftary, "Sectarian and National Movements in Iran, Khorasan, and Trasoxania during Umayyad and Early Abbasid Times", in ''History of Civilizations of Central Asia'', Vol 4, pt. 1; edited by M.S. Asimov and [[Clifford Edmund Bosworth|C.E. Bosworth]]; [[UNESCO]] Publishing, [[Institute of Ismaili Studies]]: "... Not only did the inhabitants of Khurasan not succumb to the language of the nomadic invaders, but they imposed their own tongue on them. The region could even assimilate the Turkic Ghaznavids and Seljuks (eleventh and twelfth centuries), the Timurids (fourteenth–fifteenth centuries), and the Qajars (nineteenth–twentieth centuries) ..."</ref> [[Türk-İran geleneği]]nde büyük bir gelişme sağladı<ref>"The [[Turko-Persian tradition]] features Persian culture patronized by Turkic rulers." See Daniel Pipes: "The Event of Our Era: Former Soviet Muslim Republics Change the Middle East" in Michael Mandelbaum, "Central Asia and the World: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkemenistan and the World", Council on Foreign Relations, p. 79. Exact statement: "In Short, the Turko-Persian tradition featured Persian culture patronized by Turcophone rulers."</ref> ve İran kültürünü Anadolu'ya taşıdı.<ref>Grousset, Rene, ''The Empire of the Steppes'', (Rutgers University Press, 1991), 574.</ref><ref>Bingham, Woodbridge, Hilary Conroy and Frank William Iklé, ''History of Asia'', Vol.1, (Allyn and Bacon, 1964), 98.</ref> Türk boylarının ele geçirilen yerlerde devlet otoritesini artırmak gibi siyasi amaçlar doğrultusunda devlet yöneticileri tarafından ülkenin kuzeybatısına yerleştirilmesi ile bu bölgelerde [[Türkleştirme]] süreci başladı.<ref>*''An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples'' (Peter B. Golden. Otto Harrasowitz, 1992). pg 386:
"Turkic penetration probably began in the Hunnic era and its aftermath. Steady pressure from Turkic nomads was typical of the Khazar era, although there are no unambiguous references to permanent settlements. These most certainly occurred with the arrival of the Oguz in the 11th century. The Turkicization of much of Azarbayjan, according to Soviet scholars, was completed largely during the Ilxanid period if not by late Seljuk times. Sumer, placing a slightly different emphasis on the data (more correct in my view), posts three periods which Turkicization took place: Seljuk, Mongol and Post-Mongol (Qara Qoyunlu, Aq Qoyunlu and Safavid). In the first two, Oguz Turkic tribes advanced or were driven to the western frontiers (Anatolia) and Northern Azarbaijan (Arran, the Mugan steppe). In the last period, the Turkic elements in Iran (derived from Oguz, with lesser admixture of Uygur, Qipchaq, Qaluq and other Turks brought to Iran during the Chinggisid era, as well as Turkicized Mongols) were joined now by Anatolian Turks migrating back to Iran. This marked the final stage of Turkicization. Although there is some evidence for the presence of Qipchaqs among the Turkic tribes coming to this region, there is little doubt that the critical mass which brought about this linguistic shift was provided by the same Oguz-Turkmen tribes that had come to Anatolia. The Azeris of today are an overwhelmingly sedentary, detribalized people. Anthropologically, they are little distinguished from the Iranian neighbors."
* John Perry:
"We should distinguish two complementary ways in which the advent of the Turks affected the language map of Iran. First, since the Turkish-speaking rulers of most Iranian polities from the Ghaznavids and Seljuks onward were already Iranized and patronized Persian literature in their domains, the expansion of Turk-ruled empires served to expand the territorial domain of written Persian into the conquered areas, notably Anatolia and Central and South Asia. Secondly, the influx of massive Turkish-speaking populations (culminating with the rank and file of the Mongol armies) and their settlement in large areas of Iran (particularly in Azerbaijan and the northwest), progressively turkicized local speakers of Persian, Kurdish and other Iranian languages"
(John Perry. "The Historical Role of Turkish in Relation to Persian of Iran". ''Iran & the Caucasus'', Vol. 5, (2001), pp. 193–200.)
* According to C.E. Bosworth:
"The eastern Caucasus came under Saljuq control in the middle years of the 5th/11th century, and in ca. 468/1075-56 Sultan Alp Arslān sent his slave commander ʿEmād-al-dīn Savtigin as governor of Azerbaijan and Arrān, displacing the last Shaddadids. From this period begins the increasing Turkicization of Arrān, under the Saljuqs and then under the line of Eldigüzid or Ildeñizid Atabegs, who had to defend eastern Transcaucasia against the attacks of the resurgent Georgian kings. The influx of Oghuz and other Türkmens was accentuated by the Mongol invasions. Bardaʿa had never revived fully after the Rūs sacking, and is little mentioned in the sources."
(C.E. Bsowrth, Arran in ''Encyclopedia Iranica'')
* According to Fridrik Thordarson:
"Iranian influence on Caucasian languages. There is general agreement that Iranian languages predominated in Azerbaijan from the 1st millennium b.c. until the advent of the Turks in a.d. the 11th century (see Menges, pp. 41–42; Camb. Hist. Iran IV, pp. 226–28, and VI, pp. 950–52). The process of Turkicization was essentially complete by the beginning of the 16th century, and today Iranian languages are spoken in only a few scattered settlements in the area."</ref>
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