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{{Use Indian English|date=January 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
{{Infobox state
<!-- See Template:Infobox settlement for additional fields and descriptions -->
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| native_name =
| native_name_lang = malayalam
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| image_skyline = Kerala houseboat.jpg
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| image_caption = A typical Kerala houseboat near [[Alappuzha]]
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| coor_pinpoint = Thiruvananthapuram
| coordinates_type = region:IN-KL_type:adm1st
| coordinates_display = inline,title
| coordinates_footnotes =
| coordinates_region = IN-KL
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[Regions of India|Region]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[South India]]
| established_title = Established
| established_date = 1 November 1956
| parts_type = [[List of Indian districts|Districts]]
| parts_style = para
| p1 = [[Districts of Kerala|14]]
| seat_type = Capital
| seat = [[Thiruvananthapuram]]
| seat1_type = Largest city
| seat1 = [[Thiruvananthapuram]]
| seat2_type = Other major cities
| seat2 = Kochi, Kozhikode, Kollam, Thrissur, and Kannur
| government_footnotes =
| governing_body = [[Government of Kerala]]
| leader_title = [[Governors of Kerala|Governor]]
| leader_name = [[Nikhil Kumar]]<ref>[http://newindianexpress.com/nation/article1495450.ece Nikhil Kumar appointed Kerala Governor - The New Indian Express<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
| leader_title1 = [[Chief Ministers of Kerala|Chief Minister]]
| leader_name1 = [[Oommen Chandy]] ([[Indian National Congress|INC]])
| leader_title2 = [[Legislature of Kerala|Legislature]]
| leader_name2 = [[Unicameral]] (141{{ref|leg|*}} seats)
| leader_title3 = [[14th Lok Sabha|Parliamentary constituency]]
| leader_name3 = 20
| leader_title4 = [[High Courts of India|High Court]]
| leader_name4 = [[Kerala High Court]]
<!--
| unit_pref = Metric<!-- or US or UK -->
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 = 38863
| area_note =
| area_rank = 21st
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_footnotes = <ref>[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/ Census of India], 2011. Census Data Online, Population.</ref>
| population_total = 33387677
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank = 12th
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_note =
| population_demonym = Keralite, [[Malayali]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +05:30
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|IN-KL]]
| blank_name_sec1 = [[Human Development Index|HDI]]
| blank_info_sec1 = {{increase}} 0.790<ref name="IDHR 2011">{{cite web |title=India Human Development Report 2011: Towards Social Inclusion |url=http://www.pratirodh.com/pdf/human_development_report2011.pdf |publisher=Institute of Applied Manpower Research, [[Planning Commission (India)|Planning Commission]], [[Government of India]] |accessdate=17 October 2012}}</ref> (<span style="color:#090">high</span>)
| blank1_name_sec1 = HDI rank
| blank1_info_sec1 = 1st (2011)
| blank_name_sec2 = [[Literacy in India|Literacy]]
| blank_info_sec2 = 93.91% (ranked 1st in India)<ref name="censusindia.gov.in">{{cite web|title=State of Literacy|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/data_files/india/Final_PPT_2011_chapter6.pdf|work=India Census 2011|publisher=Government of India|accessdate=30 June 2013|format=PDF}}</ref>
| blank1_name_sec2 = Official languages
| blank1_info_sec2 = [[Malayalam]], [[English language|English]]
| website = [http://kerala.gov.in/ kerala.gov.in]
| footnotes = {{note|leg|*}} 140 elected, 1 nominated
}}
'''Kerala''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɛ|r|ə|l|ə}}, regionally referred as '''Keralam''', is a [[states and territories of India|state]] located in the [[South India|south-west]] region of [[India]] on the [[Malabar coast]]. It was formed on 1 November 1956 per the [[States Reorganisation Act]] by combining various [[Malayalam]]-speaking regions. Spread over {{convert|38863|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}} with a population of 33,387,677, it is bordered by [[Karnataka]] to the north and north east, [[Tamil Nadu]] to the east and south, and the [[Laccadive Sea]] to the west. [[Thiruvananthapuram]] is the state capital among the 14 districts; other major cities include [[Kochi]], [[Kozhikode]], [[Kollam]] and [[Thrissur]].
The region was a prominent spice exporter from 3000 BCE to 3rd century. The [[Chera Dynasty]] was the first powerful kingdom based in Kerala, though it frequently struggled against attacks from the neighbouring [[Chola]]s and [[Pandya]]s. During the Chera period Kerala remained an international spice trading center. Later, in the 15th century, the lucrative spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, and eventually paved the way for the European colonisation of the whole of India. After independence, [[Travancore]] and [[Cochin]] joined the Republic of India and [[Travancore-Cochin]] was given the status of a state. Later, the state was formed in 1956 by merging the [[Malabar district]], Travancore-Cochin (excluding four southern [[taluk]]s), and the taluk of [[Kasargod]], [[South Kanara]].
Kerala is the state with the lowest positive population growth rate in India (3.44%) and has a density of 819 people per km<sup>2</sup>. The state has the highest [[Human Development Index|Human Development Index (HDI)]] (0.790) in the country according to the [[Human Development Report|Human Development Report 2011]].<ref name="IDHR 2011" /> It also has the highest [[literacy rate]] (93.91%), the highest [[life expectancy]] (74 years) and the highest [[sex ratio]] (as defined by number of women per 1000 men: 1,083 women per 1000 men) among all Indian states. Kerala has the lowest homicide rate among Indian states, for 2011 it was 1.1 per 100,000.<ref>http://ncrb.nic.in/CD-CII2011/cii-2011/Table%203.1.pdf</ref> A survey in 2005 by [[Transparency International]] ranked it as the least corrupt state in the country. Kerala has witnessed significant emigration of its people, especially to the [[Persian Gulf states|Persian Gulf countries]] during the [[Kerala Gulf boom]] during the 1970s and early 1980s, and its economy depends significantly on [[remittances]] from a large [[Malayali]] expatriate community. [[Hinduism]] is practised by more than half of the population, followed by [[Islam]] and [[Christianity]]. Malayalam is the major spoken language. Although it is considered the "cleanest state in India", the [[morbidity rate]], at 118, is the highest in the country {{citation needed|date=June 2013}}. The culture of the state traces its roots from 3rd century CE. It is a synthesis of [[Aryan]] and [[Ancient Dravidian culture|Dravidian]] cultures, developed over centuries under influences from other parts of India and abroad.
Production of pepper and natural rubber contribute a prominent portion of the total national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut, tea, coffee, cashew and spices are important. The state has 590 km of coastal belt, and around 1.1 million people of the state are dependent on the fishery industry which contributes 3% of the state's income. The state's {{convert|145704|km|mi}} of roads, constitute 4.2% of all Indian roadways. There are three existing and two proposed international airports. Waterways are also used as a means of transportation. The state has the [[Indian states ranking by media exposure|highest media exposure in India]] with newspapers publishing in nine different languages; mainly English and Malayalam. Kerala is an important tourist destination, with the [[Kerala Backwaters|backwaters]], [[beaches]], [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic tourism]], and [[tropical]] greenery among its major attractions.
==Etymology==
The name ''Kerala'' takes the form ''Keralam'' in [[Malayalam]], the main language of the state.<ref name="AsherKumari1997">{{cite book|author1=Ronald E. Asher|author2=T. C. Kumari|title=Malayalam|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=uFQG2DCaIsIC&pg=PR5|accessdate=6 January 2013|year=1997|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-02242-2|pages=5–}}</ref> However there are alternative etymologies for the name:
A 3rd-century BCE rock inscription by the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] emperor [[Asoka the Great]] refers to the local ruler as ''Keralaputra'' (Sanskrit for "son of Kerala"; or "son of Chera[s]", this is associated with a popular etymology deriving "kerala" from "kera", or coconut).<ref>{{cite book|author=A. Sreedhara Menon|title=Political History of Modern Kerala|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=wnAjqjhc1VcC&pg=PA13|accessdate=1 August 2012|year=1987|publisher=D C Books|isbn=978-81-264-2156-5|pages=13–}}</ref>
Two thousand years ago, one of three states in the region was called ''[[Chera Dynasty|Cheralam]]'' in [[Tamil language|Classical Tamil]]: ''Chera'' and ''Kera'' are variants of the same word.<ref name="Sainz1972">{{cite book|author=Nicasio Silverio Sainz|title=Cuba y la Casa de Austria|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AOEBAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=6 January 2013|year=1972|publisher=Ediciones Universal|page=120}}</ref> The Graeco-Roman trade map ''[[Periplus Maris Erythraei]]'' refers to this Keralaputra as ''Celobotra''.<ref name="Caldwell1998">{{cite book|author=Robert Caldwell|title=A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Or South-Indian Family of Languages|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5PPCYBApSnIC&pg=PA92|accessdate=1 August 2012|date=1 December 1998|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0117-8|page=92}}</ref> Ralston Marr derives "Kerala" from the word "Cheral" that refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings.<ref>{{cite book | author=John Ralston Marr | year=1985|title=The Eight Anthologies|publisher=Institute of Asian Studies|pages=263}}</ref> In turn the word "Cheral" is derived from the proto-Tamil-malayalam word for "lake". Another theory suggestes the name is derived from the Arabic "Khair Allah" {{ar|خير الله}}.<ref name=Singh>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Anees Jung ; illustrations by Prem|title=Night of the new moon : encounters with Muslim women in India|year=1993|publisher=Penguin Books|location=New Delhi|isbn=0140234055|page=100}}</ref>
===Ancient religious texts===
[[File:Parshuramsaraswats.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Parashurama|Parasurama]], surrounded by settlers, commanding [[Varuna]] to part the seas and reveal Kerala.]]
According to Hindu mythology, the land of Kerala was recovered from the sea by [[Parasurama]], an [[Daśāvatāra|avatar]] of [[Vishnu]]; hence Kerala is also called ''Parasurama Kshetram'' ("The Land of Parasurama"). Parasurama was an axe-wielding warrior sage. He threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached. According to legend this new area of land extended from [[Gokarna, India|Gokarna]] to [[Kanyakumari]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Aiya VN |title=The Travancore State Manual|publisher=Travancore Government Press |pages=210–212 |year=1906 |accessdate=12 November 2007 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=RdzaPW-kEvQC }}</ref> Consensus among more scientific geographers agrees that a substantial portion of this area was indeed under the sea in ancient times.<ref name="Menon2007">{{cite book|author=A Sreedhara Menon|title=A Survey Of Kerala History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA20|accessdate=27 July 2012|date=1 January 2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|pages=20–21}}</ref> The legend later expanded, and found literary expression in the 17th or 18th century with ''[[Keralolpathi]]'', which traces the origin of aspects of early Kerala society, such as land tenure and administration, to the story of Parasurama.<ref>{{cite book|author=M. T. Narayanan|title=Agrarian Relations in Late Medieval Malabar|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=kHtbkuXruzwC&pg=PA17|accessdate=28 July 2012|date=1 January 2003|publisher=Northern Book Centre|isbn=978-81-7211-135-9|pages=16–18}}</ref> Another much earlier [[Puranic]] character associated with Kerala is [[Mahabali]], an [[Asura]] and a prototypical king of justice, who ruled the earth from Kerala. He won the war against the [[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]], driving them into exile. The Devas pleaded before Lord ''[[Vishnu]]'', who took his fifth incarnation as ''[[Vamana]]'' and pushed Mahabali down to [[Patala]] (the netherworld) to placate the Devas. There is a belief that, once a year during the [[Onam]] festival, Mahabali returns to Kerala.<ref name="Rinehart2004">{{cite book|author=Robin Rinehart|title=Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hMPYnfS_R90C&pg=PA146|accessdate=28 July 2012|year=2004|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-905-8|page=146}}</ref>
The [[Matsya Purana]], which is among the oldest of the 18 [[Puranas]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Goldberg|first=Ellen|title=The Lord who is Half Woman: Ardhanārīśvara in Indian and Feminist Perspective|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xUhlxBozntoC&pg=PA20|year=2002|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-5325-4|page=20}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kemmerer|first=Lisa|title=Animals and World Religions|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=iFEL2yjkbAAC&pg=PA78|year=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-991255-1|page=78}}</ref> makes the [[Malaya Mountains]] of Kerala (and [[Tamil Nadu]]) the setting for the story of Lord [[Matsya]], the first [[Dashavatara|incarnation]] of Lord [[Vishnu]], and King [[Manu (Hinduism)|Manu]], the first man and the king of the region.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dalal|first=Roshen|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA250|year=2011|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|page=250}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Ragozin|first=Zenaide A.|title=Vedic India As Embodied Principally in the Rig-veda|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=T16d-eRG5VkC&pg=PA341|year=2005|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|isbn=978-1-4179-4463-7|page=341|accessdate=2013-03-21}}</ref> The earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala by name is the [[Aitareya Aranyaka]] of the [[Rigveda]].<ref name="lit">{{cite web|url=http://www.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2818&Itemid=2263 |title=Literacy – official website of Govt of Kerala |accessdate=3 October 2011}}([[Indian states ranking by literacy rate|1st]]) The breakup shows 94.2 for males and 87.86 for females.''</ref> It is also mentioned in both the [[Ramayana]] and the [[Mahabharata]], the two great Hindu epics.<ref name="Menon3"/>
==History==
{{Main|History of Kerala }}
=== Pre-history ===
[[File:MarayoorDolmen.JPG|thumb|right|200 px|A [[dolmen]] erected by Neolithic people in [[Marayur]].]]
{{Main|Pre-history of Kerala}}
Prehistorical archaeological findings include [[dolmen]]s of the [[Neolithic]] era in the [[Marayur]] area in Idukki district. They are locally known as "muniyara", derived from ''muni'' ([[hermit]] or [[Index of religious honorifics and titles|sage]]) and ''ara'' (dolmen).<ref name="Unlocking the secrets of history">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2004/12/06/stories/2004120604900300.htm | location=Chennai, India | work=The Hindu | title=Unlocking the secrets of history | date=6 December 2004}}</ref> Rock engravings in the [[Edakkal Caves]] (in [[Wayanad]]) are thought to date from the early to late Neolithic eras around 5000 BCE.<ref name="Kapoor2002">{{cite book|author=Subodh Kapoor|title=The Indian Encyclopaedia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gxIpYtnyzu4C&pg=PA2184|accessdate=1 August 2012|date=1 July 2002|publisher=Cosmo Publications|isbn=978-81-7755-257-7|page=2184}}</ref><ref name="kerala.gov.in">[http://www.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3792:travel-and-tourism&catid=271:about-kerala&Itemid=2267 Tourism information on districts –Wayanad], official website of the Govt. of Kerala</ref> Archaeological studies have identified many [[Mesolithic]], Neolithic and [[Megalithic]] sites in Kerala.<ref name="AroraSingh116">{{cite book|author1=Udai Prakash Arora|author2=A. K. Singh|title=Currents in Indian History, Art, and Archaeology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZFROamyZS7IC&pg=PA122|accessdate=6 October 2012|date=1 January 1999|publisher=Anamika Publishers & Distributors|isbn=978-81-86565-44-5|page=116}}</ref> The studies point to the indigenous development of the ancient Kerala society and its culture beginning from the [[Paleolithic]] age, and its continuity through Mesolithic, [[Neolithic]] and Megalithic ages.<ref name=autogenerated3>{{cite book|author1=Udai Prakash Arora|author2=A. K. Singh|title=Currents in Indian History, Art, and Archaeology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZFROamyZS7IC&pg=PA122|accessdate=6 October 2012|date=1 January 1999|publisher=Anamika Publishers & Distributors|isbn=978-81-86565-44-5|pages=118, 123}}</ref> However, foreign cultural contacts have assisted this cultural formation.<ref name="AroraSingh1999">{{cite book|author1=Udai Prakash Arora|author2=A. K. Singh|title=Currents in Indian History, Art, and Archaeology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZFROamyZS7IC&pg=PA122|accessdate=6 October 2012|date=1 January 1999|publisher=Anamika Publishers & Distributors|isbn=978-81-86565-44-5|page=123}}</ref> The studies suggest possible relationship with [[Indus Valley Civilization]] during the late [[Bronze Age]] and early [[Iron Age]].<ref name="thehindu.com">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/article26324.ece | location=Chennai, India | work=The Hindu | title=Symbols akin to Indus valley culture discovered in Kerala | date=29 September 2009}}</ref>
==== Civilization ====
Legends apart, the first set of people who left their footprints on the soil of Kerala can be identified at present only with reference to their burial practices. Though records are lacking, a reasonable assumption is that they spoke an archaic form of Tamil. They constructed strange burial monuments in granite, literate and pottery, most of which are strikingly similar to the megalithic monuments of West Europe and Asia.<ref name="ReferenceA">http://www.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&id=2852&Itemid=2291</ref>
These monuments are, however, younger than their counterparts in the rest of Asia. Historians have postulated a time bracket between 10th century B.C. and 5th century A.D. for these people. It is clear from the grave relics, including iron tridents and daggers, that the megalithic builders had long emerged out of the stone age into the Iron Age without passing through a Bronze Age. In fact, there is very little evidence of the old and the new stone ages in Kerala.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
==== Influence of Maurya Empire ====
Kerala was a vassal of the [[Maurya Empire]] during Asoka (circa. 273- 232 BCE).<ref>http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/38797/Ashoka</ref> It is quite possible that the Mauryan<ref>http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/370216/Mauryan-empire</ref> invaders who reached the Mysore borders in their conquest southwards, encountered the megalith making tribes who lived in hill forts and controlled the surrounding countryside. The aborigine tribes were ages behind the Mauryan culture. They called the aborigines "Keralaputhras".<ref>http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/315300/Kerala/46335/History</ref> Mauryan army did not assert their administrative control over these areas. The civilization in Kerala at that time was in late [[Megalithic]] age. Due to the interaction between [[Maurya Empire]]<ref>http://www.niyamasabha.org/codes/ginfo_1.htm</ref> there was rapid development and the social culture jumped to [[Bronze Age]] with out going to [[Iron Age]]. A whole corpus of ancient Tamil literature known to scholars by the name of [[Sangam literature]], has been preserved; so these ancient literature gives a lime light over the happenings of this area.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> <br />
''Trade and commerce'' developed due to the contact with the Mauryas. The contact with [[Mauryan Empire]] transformed Kerala from tribal polity into civilized polity. The stimulus of overseas trade provided by the Roman empire in the first three centuries of the Christian era triggered off the next phase of development in Tamilakam.
The geographical advantages, i.e., the abundance of pepper and other spices, the navigability of the rivers connecting the high mountains with the seas and the discovery of favourable trade winds which carried sailing ships directly from the Arabian coast to Kerala in less than forty days, combined to produce a veritable boom in Kerala's foreign trade. The harbours of Naura near Kannur, Tyndis near Quilandy, Muziris near Kodungallor and Bacare near Alappuzha owed their existence primarily to the Roman trade. Roman contact with Kerala might have given rise to small colonies of Jews and Syrian Christians in the chief harbor towns of Kerala.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
''Prehistorical archaeological findings'' include [[dolmen]]s of the [[Neolithic]] era in the [[Marayur]] area in Idukki district.<ref name="Unlocking the secrets of history"/> Rock engravings in the [[Edakkal Caves]] (in [[Wayanad]]).<ref name="Kapoor2002">{{cite book|author=Subodh Kapoor|title=The Indian Encyclopaedia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gxIpYtnyzu4C&pg=PA2184|accessdate=1 August 2012|date=1 July 2002|publisher=Cosmo Publications|isbn=978-81-7755-257-7|page=2184}}</ref><ref name="kerala.gov.in"/> Archaeological studies have identified many [[Mesolithic]], Neolithic and [[Megalithic]] sites in Kerala.<ref name="AroraSingh116">{{cite book|author1=Udai Prakash Arora|author2=A. K. Singh|title=Currents in Indian History, Art, and Archaeology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZFROamyZS7IC&pg=PA122|accessdate=6 October 2012|date=1 January 1999|publisher=Anamika Publishers & Distributors|isbn=978-81-86565-44-5|page=116}}</ref> The studies point to the indigenous development of the ancient Kerala society and its culture beginning from the [[Paleolithic]] age, and its continuity through Mesolithic, [[Neolithic]] and Megalithic ages.<ref name=autogenerated3>{{cite book|author1=Udai Prakash Arora|author2=A. K. Singh|title=Currents in Indian History, Art, and Archaeology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZFROamyZS7IC&pg=PA122|accessdate=6 October 2012|date=1 January 1999|publisher=Anamika Publishers & Distributors|isbn=978-81-86565-44-5|pages=118, 123}}</ref> However, foreign cultural contacts have assisted this cultural formation.<ref name="AroraSingh1999">{{cite book|author1=Udai Prakash Arora|author2=A. K. Singh|title=Currents in Indian History, Art, and Archaeology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZFROamyZS7IC&pg=PA122|accessdate=6 October 2012|date=1 January 1999|publisher=Anamika Publishers & Distributors|isbn=978-81-86565-44-5|page=123}}</ref> The studies suggest possible relationship with [[Indus Valley Civilization]] during the late [[Bronze Age]] and early [[Iron Age]] as a few relics akin to the Indus valley symbols were discovered in Kerala.<ref name="thehindu.com"/>
=== Ancient period ===
Kerala was a major spice exporter from as early as 3000 BCE, according to [[Sumer|Sumerian records]].<ref>[http://books.google.co.in/books?id=gOrvghLklKoC ''Striving for sustainability, environmental stress and democratic initiatives in Kerala''], p. 79; ISBN 81-8069-294-9, Srikumar Chattopadhyay, Richard W. Franke; Year: 2006.</ref> Its fame as the land of spices attracted ancient [[Babylonians]], [[Assyrians]] and [[Egyptians]] to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. [[Arabs]] and [[Phoenicians]] were also successful in establishing their prominence in the Kerala trade during this early period.<ref name="Menon57">{{cite book|author=A Sreedhara Menon|title=A Survey Of Kerala History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA57|accessdate=10 October 2012|date=1 January 2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|pages=57–58}}</ref> The word ''Kerala'' is first recorded (as ''Keralaputra'') in a 3rd-century BCE rock inscription (Rock Edict 2) left by the [[Maurya empire|Maurya emperor]] [[Asoka]] (274–237 BCE).<ref name="Kerala 2011">"Kerala." Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 December 2011.</ref> The ''Land of Keralaputra'' was one of the four independent kingdoms in southern India during Asoka's time, the others being [[Chola Empire|Chola]], [[Pandya Empire|Pandya]], and [[Satiyaputras|Satiyaputra]].<ref name="SmithJackson2008">{{cite book|author1=Vincent A. Smith|author2=A. V. Williams Jackson|title=History of India, in Nine Volumes: Vol. II – From the Sixth Century BCE to the Mohammedan Conquest, Including the Invasion of Alexander the Great|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bP7DzXQBoM4C&pg=PA166|accessdate=1 August 2012|date=30 November 2008|publisher=Cosimo, Inc.|isbn=978-1-60520-492-5|pages=166–}}</ref> Scholars hold that Keralaputra is an alternate name of the [[Chera dynasty|Cheras]], the first powerful dynasty based on Kerala.<ref name="The Cambridge Shorter History of India">{{cite book|title=The Cambridge Shorter History of India|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9_48AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA193|accessdate=10 October 2012|publisher=CUP Archive|page=193|id=GGKEY:2W0QHXZ7K40}}</ref><ref name="Dwivedi1994">{{cite book|author=Bhanwar Lal Dwivedi|title=Evolution of Education Thought in India|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=idERT6Tg4MMC&pg=PA164|accessdate=10 October 2012|date=1 January 1994|publisher=Northern Book Centre|isbn=978-81-7211-059-8|pages=164–}}</ref> These territories once shared a common language and culture, within an area known as [[Tamilakam|Tamiḻakam]].<ref>{{Cite book
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| publisher=Asian Educational Services
| isbn=978-81-206-0150-5
| accessdate=16 June 2009}}</ref> While the Cheras ruled the major part of modern Kerala, its southern tip was in the kingdom of Pandyas,<ref name="Singh2008">{{cite book|author=Upinder Singh|title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC&pg=PA385|accessdate=10 October 2012|year=2008|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-1677-9|page=385}}</ref> which had a trading port sometimes identified in ancient Western sources as ''[[Nelcynda]]'' (or ''Neacyndi'').<ref name="Books.google.co.in">{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=rQipbjusDyQC&pg=PA301&lpg=PA301&dq=nelcynda |title=History of ancient geography – Google Books |author=James Oliver Thomson|publisher=Biblo & Tannen Publishers, 1948|date= |accessdate=30 July 2009|isbn=978-0-8196-0143-8|year=1948}}. See also [http://www.orientalthane.com/archaeology/news_2008_01_30_3.htm]</ref> At later times the region fell under the control of the Pandyas, Cheras, and Cholas. [[Ay kingdom|Ays]] and [[Ezhimala kingdom|Mushikas]] were two other remarkable dynasties of ancient Kerala, whose kingdoms lay to the south and north of Cheras respectively.<ref name="Shashi1996">{{cite book|author=S. S. Shashi|title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lwswAQAAIAAJ|accessdate=10 October 2012|year=1996|publisher=Anmol Publications|isbn=978-81-7041-859-7|page=1207}}</ref><ref name="Ramunny1993">{{cite book|author=Murkot Ramunny|title=Ezhimala: The Abode of the Naval Academy|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=7Hue54bWk6IC&pg=PA3|accessdate=10 October 2012|date=1 January 1993|publisher=Northern Book Centre|isbn=978-81-7211-052-9|page=3}}</ref>
In the last centuries BCE the coast became famous among the Greeks and Romans for its spices, especially [[black pepper]]. The Cheras had trading links with [[History of China#Ancient China|China]], [[Western Asia|West Asia]], [[Egypt]], [[Greece]], and the [[Roman Empire]]. In the foreign-trade circles the region was identified by the name ''Male'' or ''Malabar''.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1961/JSS_054_1c_Minattur_MalayaWhatsInAName.pdf | title=Malaya: What's in the name | publisher=siamese-heritage.org | accessdate=7 August 2012 | author=Joseph Minattur | page=1}}</ref> [[Muziris]], Berkarai, and Nelcynda were among the principal ports at that time.<ref name="Kusuman">{{cite book |author=K. K. Kusuman |title=A History of Trade & Commerce in Travancore |publisher=Mittal Publications |year=1987 |isbn=978-81-7099-026-0 |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=qbNuyHswr1cC |pages=1–2 |accessdate= }}</ref> The value of Rome's annual trade with India as a whole was estimated at no less than 50,000,000 [[sesterces]];<ref>According to [[Pliny the Elder]], goods from India were sold in the Empire at 100 times their original purchase price. See [http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/BookLibrary/books/bibliographie/P/Plinyelder/elder/pliny-india.html]</ref> contemporary [[Sangam literature]] describes Roman ships coming to [[Muziris]] in Kerala, laden with gold to exchange for pepper. One of the earliest western traders to use the monsoon winds to reach Kerala may have been [[Eudoxus of Cyzicus]], around 118 or 166 BCE, under the patronage of [[Ptolemy VIII Physcon|Ptolemy VIII]], a king of the [[Hellenistic civilisation|Hellenistic]] [[Ptolemaic dynasty]] in Egypt. Various Roman establishments in the port cities of the region, such as a temple of ''[[Augustus]]'' and barracks for garrisoned Roman soldiers, are marked in the [[Tabula Peutingeriana]]: the only surviving map of the Roman ''[[cursus publicus]]''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Abraham Eraly|title=The First Spring: The Golden Age of India|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&pg=PA246|accessdate=7 August 2012|date=1 December 2011|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-670-08478-4|pages=246–}}</ref><ref name="Iyengar_2001">{{cite book |author=Iyengar PTS |year=2001 |title=History Of The Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=81-206-0145-9 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=ERq-OCn2cloC |accessdate=29 December 2008 }}</ref>
Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala.<ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite book |author=Iyengar PTS |year=2001 |title=History Of The Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=81-206-0145-9 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ERq-OCn2cloC |pages=192–195 |accessdate=29 December 2008 }}</ref> Jewish connection with Kerala started as early as 573 BCE.<ref>De Beth Hillel, David (1832). ''Travels'' ([[Madras]] publication).</ref><ref>Lord, James Henry (1977). ''The Jews in India and the Far East''; Greenwood Press Reprint; ISBN</ref> Arabs also had trade links with Kerala, possibly started before the 4th century BCE, as [[Herodotus]] (484–413 BCE) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to the Jews at Eden.<ref name="Kusuman"/> They intermarried with local people, and from this mixture the large [[Muslim Mappila]] community of Kerala are descended.<ref name="Dialogue">{{cite book |author=Rolland E. Miller |title=Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Perspectives and Encounters |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publications |year=1993 |isbn=978-81-208-1158-4 |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=6eHgNyNimoAC |page=50 |accessdate= }}</ref> In the 4th century, some Christians also immigrated from [[Persia]] and joined the early [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christian]] community who trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of [[Thomas the Apostle]] in the 1st century.<ref>{{cite book |author=Geoffrey Wainwright |title=The Oxford History Of Christian Worship |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-513886-3 |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=h5VQUdZhx1gC |page=666 |accessdate= }}</ref> ''Mappila'' was an honorific title that had been assigned to respected visitors from abroad; and Jewish, Syrian Christian, and Muslim immigration might account for later names of the respective communities: [[Juda Mappila]]s, [[Saint Thomas Christians|Nasrani Mappila]]s, and [[Mappila|Muslim Mappila]]s.<ref name="BMalieckal">* Bindu Malieckal (2005) Muslims, Matriliny, and A Midsummer Night's Dream: European Encounters with the Mappilas of Malabar, India; The Muslim World Volume 95 Issue 2</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Milton J, Skeat WW, Pollard AW, Brown L |title=The Indian Christians of St Thomas |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=31 August 1982 |isbn=0-521-21258-8 |page=171 }}</ref> According to the legends of these communities, the earliest [[Saint Thomas Christian Churches|Christian churches]],<ref>{{cite book |author=Susan Bayly |title=Saints, Goddesses and Kings |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-89103-5 |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=Fxqtx8SflEsC |page=40 |accessdate= }}</ref> [[Cheraman Juma Masjid|mosque]],<ref>{{cite book |author=Jonathan Goldstein |title=The Jews of China |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7656-0104-9 |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=8Z6DlzyT2vwC |page=123 |accessdate= }}</ref> and [[Paradesi Synagogue|synagogue]] (1568 CE)<ref>{{cite book |author=Nathan Katz |title=Who Are the Jews of India? |publisher=University of California Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-520-21323-4 |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=ZWX6pF2PTJwC |page=245 |accessdate= }}</ref> in India were built in Kerala. The combined number of Muslims, Christians, and Jews was relatively small at this early stage. They co-existed harmoniously with each other and with local Hindu society, aided by the commercial benefit from such association.<ref name="Dialogue"/>
=== Early medieval period ===
[[File:Signatures.jpg|thumb|[[Tharisapalli plates]]: testify that during the Kulasekhara period merchant guilds and trade corporations played a very significant role in the economy and social life of the times.]]
Much of history of the region from the 6th to the 8th century is obscure.<ref name="Kerala 2011"/> A [[Later Chera Dynasty|Second Chera Kingdom]] ( c. 800–1102), also known as [[Kulasekhara|Kulasekhara dynasty of Mahodayapuram]], was established by [[Kulashekhara Alwar|Kulasekhara Varman]], which at its zenith ruled over a territory comprising the whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early part of ''Kulasekara period'', the southern region from [[Nagerkovil]] to [[Thiruvalla]] was ruled by [[Ays (Kerala)|Ay kings]], who lost their power in the 10th century and thus the region became a part of the ''Kulasekara empire''.<ref name="Balachand">{{cite book|author=K. Balachandran Nayar|title=In quest of Kerala|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=EXIeAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=8 August 2012|year=1974|publisher=Accent Publications|page=86}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=A Sreedhara Menon|title=A Survey Of Kerala History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA166|accessdate=8 August 2012|date=1 January 2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|page=97}}</ref> During Kulasekhara rule, Kerala witnessed a flourishing period of art, literatute, trade and the [[Bhakti movement|Bhakti cult]] of Hinduism.<ref name="Sreedhar123">{{cite book|author=A Sreedhara Menon|title=A Survey Of Kerala History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA166|accessdate=8 August 2012|date=1 January 2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|pages=123–131}}</ref> A Keralite identity, distinct from the [[Tamil people|Tamils]], became linguistically separate during this period.<ref>Malayalam, R. E. Asher, T. C. Kumari, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-02242-8, 1997</ref> For the local administration, the empire was divided into provinces under the rule of [[Naduvazhi]]s, with each province comprising a number of ''Desams'' under the control of chieftains, called as ''Desavazhis''.<ref name="Sreedhar123"/>
The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century, resulted in the decline of foreign trade in Kerala ports. Buddhism and Jainism disappeared from the land.<ref>http://www.kerala.cc/keralahistory/index34.htm</ref> The social system became fractured with internal divisions on the lines of [[Caste system in kerala|caste]].<ref>{{cite book|author=A Sreedhara Menon|title=A Survey Of Kerala History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA166|accessdate=9 August 2012|date=1 January 2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|page=138}}</ref> Finally, the Kulasekhara dynasty was subjugated in 1102 by the combined attack of ''Later Pandyas'' and [[Later Cholas]].<ref name="Balachand"/> However, in the 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara (1299–1314) of the southern [[Venad|Venad kingdom]] was able to establish a short-lived supremacy over southern India. After his death, in the absence of a strong central power, the state was fractured into about thirty small warring principalities; most powerful of them were the kingdom of [[Samuthiri]] in the north, [[Venad]] in the south and Kochi in the middle.<ref>{{cite book|author=Educational Britannica Educational|title=The Geography of India: Sacred and Historic Places|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xPUvqtdfjyAC&pg=PA311|accessdate=15 September 2012|date=15 August 2010|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-61530-202-4|page=311}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Territories and States of India |url= http://www.questia.com/read/108994726 |publisher= Europa {{Subscription required|via=[[Questia]]}}|accessdate=14 April 2012|year=2002 |pages=144–146}}</ref>
=== Colonial era ===
[[File:Caminho maritimo para a India.png|thumb|200 px|This figure illustrates the path of Vasco da Gama heading for the first time to India (black line)]]
The monopoly of maritime spice trade in the Indian Ocean stayed with Arabs during the [[High Middle Ages|high]] and [[Late Middle Ages|late]] medieval periods. However, the dominance of Middle East traders got challenged in the European [[Age of Discovery]] during which the spice trade, particularly in [[black pepper]], became an influential activity for European traders.<ref>{{cite book | last = Corn | first = Charles | coauthors = Glasserman, Debbie | title = The Scents of Eden: A History of the Spice Trade | publisher = Kodansha America | month = March | year = 1999 | isbn = 1-56836-249-8}}</ref> Around the 15th century, the [[Portuguese India|Portuguese]] began to dominate the eastern shipping trade in general, and the spice-trade in particular, culminating in [[Vasco Da Gama]]'s arrival in [[Kappad]] [[Kozhikode]] in 1498.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Ravindran PN |title=Black Pepper: Piper Nigrum |publisher=CRC Press |year=2000 |accessdate=11 November 2007 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=VaGCgSLrdr4C |page=3 |isbn=978-90-5702-453-5 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=Curtin PD |title=Cross-Cultural Trade in World History |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1984 |isbn=0-521-26931-8 |page=144}}</ref><ref name="Mundadan_1984">{{Cite book |author=Mundadan AM |year=1984 |title=Volume I: From the Beginning up to the Sixteenth Century (up to 1542) |series=History of Christianity in India |publisher=Theological Publications |others=Church History Association of India |location=Bangalore }}</ref> The [[Zamorin]] of Calicut permitted the new visitors to trade with his subjects. The Portuguese trade in Calicut prospered with the establishment of a factory and fort in his territory. However, Portuguese attacks on Arab properties in his jurisdiction provoked Zamorin and finally led to conflicts between them. The Portuguese took advantage of the rivalry between Zamorin and king of [[Kingdom of Cochin|Kochi]]; they allied with Kochi and when [[Francisco de Almeida]] was appointed as the Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, his headquarters was at Kochi. During his reign, the Portuguese managed to dominate relations with Kochi and established a few fortresses in Malabar coast.<ref name="Mehta2005">{{cite book|author=J. L. Mehta|title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India: Volume One: 1707–1813|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&pg=PA324|accessdate=9 August 2012|date=1 January 2005|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd|isbn=978-1-932705-54-6|pages=324–327}}</ref> Nonetheless, the Portuguese suffered severe setbacks from the attacks of Zamorin forces; especially from naval attacks under the leadership of admirals of Calicut known as [[Kunjali Marakkar]]s, which compelled them to seek a treaty. In 1571, Portuguese were defeated by the Zamorin forces in the [[Vettathunad#Battles at Chaliyam Fort|battle at Chaliyam fort]].<ref>{{cite book|author=K. K. N. Kurup|title=India's Naval Traditions: The Role of Kunhali Marakkars|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HKmXcBCKEcAC&pg=PA51|accessdate=9 August 2012|date=1 January 1997|publisher=Northern Book Centre|isbn=978-81-7211-083-3|pages=37–38}}</ref>
[[File:De Lannoy Surrender.JPG|right|thumb|200 px|[[Dutch East India Company|Dutch]] commander [[Eustachius De Lannoy|De Lannoy]] surrenders to [[Marthanda Varma]] at the [[Battle of Colachel]]. Depiction at [[Padmanabhapuram Palace]]]]
[[File:Palakkad Fort.JPG|thumb|left|250px|[[Tipu Sultan]]'s fort at Palakkad; view from outside the northern wall.]]
The weakened Portuguese were ousted by the [[Dutch East India Company]], who took advantage of continuing conflicts between [[Saamoothiri|Kozhikode]] and [[Kingdom of Cochin|Kochi]] to gain control of the trade.<ref name="South Asia 2006">{{cite book|title=South Asia 2006|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=YG8bAQAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 December 2005|publisher=Taylor & Francis|page=289}}</ref> The Dutch in turn were weakened by constant battles with [[Marthanda Varma]] of the [[Travancore Royal Family]], and were defeated at the [[Battle of Colachel]] in 1741.<ref name=autogenerated23>{{cite book|author=Murkot Ramunny|title=Ezhimala: The Abode of the Naval Academy|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=7Hue54bWk6IC&pg=PA57|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 1993|publisher=Northern Book Centre|isbn=978-81-7211-052-9|pages=57–}}</ref> An agreement, known as "Treaty of Mavelikkara", was signed by the Dutch and Travancore in 1753, according to which the Dutch were compelled to detach from all political involvements in the region.<ref name="Singh2010">{{cite book|author=Anjana Singh|title=Fort Cochin in Kerala, 1750–1830: The Social Condition of a Dutch Community in an Indian Milieu|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LFy4pWUlnfwC&pg=PA22|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=30 April 2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-16816-9|pages=22–52}}</ref><ref name="Iyer1995">{{cite book|author=S. Krishna Iyer|title=Travancore Dutch relations, 1729–1741|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=rUtuAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1995|publisher=CBH Publications|isbn=978-81-85381-42-8|page=49}}</ref><ref name="Lannoy1997">{{cite book|author=Mark de Lannoy|title=The Kulasekhara Perumals of Travancore: history and state formation in Travancore from 1671 to 1758|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pKjZAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1997|publisher=Leiden University|isbn=978-90-73782-92-1|page=190}}</ref> In the meantime, Marthanda Varma annexed many smaller northern kingdoms through military conquests, resulting in the rise of Travancore to a position of preeminence in Kerala.<ref>{{cite book|author=A. Sreedhara Menon|title=Political History of Modern Kerala|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=wnAjqjhc1VcC&pg=PA140|accessdate=10 August 2012|year=1987|publisher=D C Books|isbn=978-81-264-2156-5|page=140}}</ref>
In 1766, [[Hyder Ali]], the ruler of [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]] [[Mysorean invasion of Kerala#Invasion by Hyder Ali|invaded northern Kerala]].<ref name="Rai">{{cite book|author=Raghunath Rai|title=History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Z4-8Z0gqBkoC&pg=PA14|accessdate=18 November 2012|publisher=FK Publications|isbn=978-81-87139-69-0|pages=14–}}</ref> His son and successor, [[Tipu Sultan]], [[Mysorean invasion of Kerala#Invasions by Tipu Sultan|launched campaigns]] against the expanding [[British East India Company]], resulting in two of the four [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]].<ref name="MuseumDallapiccola2010">{{cite book|author1=British Museum|author2=Anna Libera Dallapiccola|title=South Indian Paintings: A Catalogue of the British Museum Collection|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=FIzWapiacQcC&pg=PA12|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=22 June 2010|publisher=Mapin Publishing Pvt Ltd|isbn=978-0-7141-2424-7|pages=12–}}</ref><ref name="ThorpeEdgar">{{cite book|author1=Edgar Thorpe, Showick Thorpe|author2=Thorpe Edgar|title=The Pearson CSAT Manual 2011|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WuBFs6yFRwcC&pg=RA1-PA99|accessdate=18 November 2012|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-5830-4|page=99}}</ref> Tipu ultimately ceded [[Malabar District]] and [[South Kanara]] to the Company in the 1790s; both were annexed to [[Madras Presidency]] of [[British India]] in 1792.<ref name="The Edinburgh Gazetteer: Or, Geographical Dictionary: Containing a Description of the Various Countries, Kingdoms, States, Cities, Towns, Mountains, &c. of the World; an Account of the Government, Customs, and Religion of the Inhabitants; the Boundaries and Natural Productions of Each Country, &c. &c. Forming a Complete Body of Geography, Physical, Political, Statistical, and Commercial with Addenda, Containing the Present State of the New Governments in South America...">{{cite book|title=The Edinburgh Gazetteer|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xRIyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA63|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1827|publisher=Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green|pages=63–}}</ref><ref name="Kumar1965">{{cite book|author=Dharma Kumar|title=Land and Caste in South India: Agricultural Labor in the Madras Presidency During the Nineteenth Century|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=psw5AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA87|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1965|publisher=CUP Archive|pages=87–|id=GGKEY:T72DPF9AZDK}}</ref><ref name="Ittaman2003">{{cite book|author=K.P. Ittaman|title=History of Mughal Architecture Volume Ii|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZQ5lFywZAqYC&pg=PA30|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 June 2003|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-034-1|pages=30–}}</ref> The Company forged tributary alliances with Kochi in 1791 and Travancore in 1795.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Superintendent of Government Printing |title=Imperial Gazetteer of India (Provincial Series): Madras |publisher=Government of India |location=Calcutta |year=1908 |accessdate=11 November 2007 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=xXglUxeS_WkC |page=22 }}</ref> Thus, by the end of 18th century, the whole of Kerala fell under the control of the British, either administered directly or under [[suzerainty]].<ref name="RajTharakan1981">{{cite book|author1=Kakkadan Nandanath Raj|author2=Michael Tharakan|author3=Rural Employment Policy Research Programme|title=Agrarian reform in Kerala and its impact on the rural economy: a preliminary assessment|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JF6FAAAAIAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1981|publisher=International Labour Office|pages=2–3}}</ref>
[[File:Madras Prov 1859.gif|thumb|right|200 px|A nineteenth-century map of [[Madras Province]] in [[British India]]. After independence, Kerala was formed by merging [[Malabar District|Malabar]], [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]], [[Travancore]] and the [[South Kanara]] district]]
There were major revolts in Kerala during its transition to democracy in the 20th century; most notable among them are the 1921 [[Malabar Rebellion]] and the 1946 [[Punnapra-Vayalar uprising]] in Travancore.<ref>{{cite web |year=2002 |title=Emergence of Nationalism: Punnapra-Vayalar revolt |publisher=Department of Public Relations (Government of Kerala) |accessdate=14 January 2006 |url=http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/prd2/keralam/vayalar.htm |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20050223090751/http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/prd2/keralam/vayalar.htm |archivedate=23 February 2005 }}</ref> In the ''Malabar Rebellion'', Mappila Muslims of Malabar rioted against Hindu [[zamindars]] and the [[British Raj]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Qureshi |first=MN|title=Pan-Islam in British Indian Politics: A Study of the Khilafat Movement, 1918–1924 |year=1999 |pages=445–447|isbn=90-04-10538-7 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden [u.a.] |oclc=231706684}}</ref> Some social struggles against caste inequalities also erupted in the early decades of 20th century, leading to the 1936 [[Temple Entry Proclamation]] that opened Hindu temples in Travancore to all castes;<ref name="Smith1976">{{cite book|author=Bardwell L. Smith|title=Religion and Social Conflict in South Asia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=07Y3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA42|accessdate=31 July 2012|year=1976|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-04510-1|pages=35–42}}</ref>
=== Post colonial period ===
After [[British India]] was [[Partition of India|partitioned]] in 1947 into India and [[Pakistan]], [[Travancore]] and [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] joined the [[Union of India]] and on 1 July 1949 were merged to form [[Travancore-Cochin]].<ref name="Sabharwal2007">{{cite book|author=Gopa Sabharwal|title=India Since 1947: The Independent Years|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LKySGJAGVEQC&pg=PA23|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2007|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-310274-8|pages=23–}}</ref> On 1 November 1956, the state of Kerala was formed by the [[States Reorganisation Act]] merging the Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin (excluding four southern [[tehsil|taluks]], which were merged with Tamil Nadu), and the taluk of [[Kasaragod Town|Kasargod]], [[South Kanara]].<ref name="Tmh">{{cite book|author=Tmh|title=General Knowledge Digest 2010|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=RyLmXWTKHXgC&pg=SA3-PA106|accessdate=18 November 2012|publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education|isbn=978-0-07-069939-7|pages=3–}}</ref><ref name="SinghKarafin2009">{{cite book|author1=Sarina Singh|author2=Amy Karafin|author3=Anirban Mahapatra|title=South India|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8KnLFpjEHpUC|accessdate=6 January 2013|date=1 September 2009|publisher=Lonely Planet|isbn=978-1-74179-155-6}}</ref> In 1957, elections for the new Kerala Legislative Assembly were held, and a reformist, [[Communist]]-led government came to power, under [[E. M. S. Namboodiripad]].<ref name="SinghKarafin2009"/> It was the first time a Communist government was democratically elected to power anywhere in the world.<ref name="ChitkaraŚarmā1997">{{cite book|author1=Madan Gopal Chitkara|author2=Baṃśī Rāma Śarmā|title=Indian Republic: Issues and Perspective|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=7YrmNURVoroC&pg=PA134|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 1997|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=978-81-7024-836-1|pages=134–}}</ref>
==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Kerala}}
[[File:Anamudi.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Anamudi from [[Eravikulam National Park]]]]
The state is wedged between the [[Lakshadweep Sea]] and the [[Western Ghats]]. Lying between north latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and east longitudes 74°52' and 77°22',<ref>{{cite web|title=PHYSICAL AND ANATOMICAL CHARACTERISTIC OF WOOD OF SOME LESS-KNOWN TREE SPECIES OF KERALA|url=http://docs.kfri.res.in/KFRI-RR/KFRI-RR096.pdf|work=KERALA FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE|publisher=Government of Kerala|accessdate=18 November 2012|format=PDF}}</ref> Kerala experiences the humid [[equatorial climate|equatorial tropic climate]]. The state has a coast of {{convert|590|km|mi|abbr=on}}<ref>[http://www.fisheries.kerala.gov.in/glance.htm Marine fisheries of Kerala at a glance 2005 – Selected Indicators]{{dead link|date=March 2013}} Dept. of Fisheries, Govt of Kerala</ref> and the width of the state varies between 11 and 121 km (22–75 miles).<ref name="Nair1994">{{cite book|author=V. Balakrishnan Nair|title=Social Development and Demographic Changes in South India: Focus on Kerala|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=sTS4OO9lcdgC&pg=PA15|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 1994|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.|isbn=978-81-85880-50-1|page=15}}</ref> Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands; rugged and cool mountainous terrain, the central midlands; rolling hills, and the western lowlands; coastal plains.<ref name="ChattopadhyayFranke2006">{{cite book|author1=Srikumar Chattopadhyay|author2=Srikumar Chattopadhyay And Richard W. Franke|title=Striving for Sustainability: Environmental Stress and Democratic Initiatives in Kerala|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gOrvghLklKoC&pg=PA110|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 2006|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-294-9|page=110}}</ref> The state is located at the extreme southern tip of the [[Indian subcontinent]] and lies near the centre of the [[Indian Plate|Indian]] [[tectonic plate]]; hence, it is subject to comparatively low [[earthquake|seismic]] and volcanic activity.<ref>{{Cite map |publisher=United Nations Development Programme |year=2002 |title=Map Showing Multi Hazard Zones in Kerala |url=http://www.undp.org.in/dmweb/Multihazard/Maps/Multihazard/kerala.jpg |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20061108004906/http://www.undp.org.in/dmweb/Multihazard/Maps/Multihazard/kerala.jpg |archivedate=8 November 2006 |accessdate=12 January 2006 }}</ref> [[Pre-Cambrian]] and [[Pleistocene]] geological formations compose the bulk of Kerala's terrain.<ref name="Geological Survey Water-supply Paper">{{cite book|title=Geological Survey Water-supply Paper|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=0qUYAQAAIAAJ&pg=SL4-PA6|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1961|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|page=4}}</ref><ref name="SharmaKumari2008">{{cite book|author1=Pradeep Sharma|author2=Y. Dharnai Kumari|author3=Tirunagaram Lakshmamma|title=Status Of Women And Family Planning|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2b6Ok2EcnBIC&pg=PA217|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 2008|publisher=Discovery Publishing House|isbn=978-81-8356-326-0|page=217}}</ref> A catastrophic flood in Kerala in 1341 CE drastically modified its terrain and consequently affected its history; it also created a natural harbor for spice transport.<ref name="LimitedKitchen2010">{{cite book|author1=Murdoch Books Pty Limited|author2=Murdoch Books Test Kitchen|title=India|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=d_cHBuYD3CQC&pg=PA100|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 July 2010|publisher=Murdoch Books|isbn=978-1-74196-438-7|page=100}}</ref>
[[File:Kettuvellam vembanad lake.JPG|200 px|thumb|[[Vembanad]], the largest lake in Kerala|right]]
[[File:Coconut trees and paddy field 02.JPG|thumb|right|200 px|Coconut palms can be found all over Kerala]]
[[File:ESI Ernakulam DSW.jpg|thumb|ESI hospital New building, [[Ernakulam]]]]
The eastern region of Kerala consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys immediately west of the Western Ghats' [[rain shadow]].<ref name=ChattopadhyayFranke2006 /> Forty-one of Kerala's west-flowing rivers,<ref name="Sadasivan2003">{{cite book|author=S. N. Sadasivan|title=River Disputes in India: Kerala Rivers Under Siege|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hhrRboi5kOcC&pg=PA223|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2003|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-913-3|page=223}}</ref> and three of its east-flowing ones originate in this region.<ref name="Darpan2006">{{cite book|author=Pratiyogita Darpan|title=Pratiyogita Darpan|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QegDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT72|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=September 2006|publisher=Pratiyogita Darpan|page=72}}</ref><ref name="India2008">{{cite book|author=Motilal (UK) Books of India|title=Tourist Guide Kerala|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZYfRBcLdTNYC&pg=PA11|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 February 2008|publisher=Sura Books|isbn=978-81-7478-164-2|page=11}}</ref> The Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only near [[Palakkad]]; hence also known Pal''ghat'', where the [[Palakkad Gap]] breaks through to provide access to the rest of India.<ref name="Gupta2006">{{cite book|author=Om Gupta|title=Encyclopaedia Of India Pakistan & Bangladesh|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VY1nTMBQ9vQC&pg=PA1827|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 April 2006|publisher=Gyan Publishing House|isbn=978-81-8205-389-2|page=1827}}</ref> The Western Ghats rise on average to 1,500 m (4920 ft) above sea level,<ref name="Biju2006">{{cite book|author=M.R. Biju|title=Sustainable Dimensions Of Tourism Management|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AkAdvTbg0dEC&pg=PA63|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 2006|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-8324-129-8|page=63}}</ref> while the highest peaks reach around 2,500 m (8200 ft).<ref name="Hussain">{{cite book|author=Hussain|title=Geography Of India For Civil Ser Exam|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=wUzKCZxvNQoC&pg=SA2-PA9|accessdate=18 November 2012|publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education|isbn=978-0-07-066772-3|page=2}}</ref> [[Anamudi]], the highest peak in south India, is at an elevation of 2,695 metres (8,842 ft).<ref name="Bhargava2006">{{cite book|author=S. C. Bhatt, Gopal K. Bhargava|title=Land and People of Indian States and Union Territories: In 36 Volumes. Kerala|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TDCKdPpbFPAC&pg=PA262|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2006|publisher=Gyan Publishing House|isbn=978-81-7835-370-8|page=262}}</ref> The elevations of the eastern portions of the [[Nilgiri Hills]] and [[Palni Hills]] range from 250 and 1,000 m (820 and 3300 ft).<ref name=autogenerated18>{{cite book|author=Om Gupta|title=Encyclopaedia Of India Pakistan & Bangladesh|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VY1nTMBQ9vQC&pg=PA1832|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 April 2006|publisher=Gyan Publishing House|isbn=978-81-8205-389-2|page=1832}}</ref><ref name="Islam">{{cite book|author=R. P. Singh, Zubairul Islam|title=Environmental Studies|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gaQptMlw3X8C&pg=PA172|accessdate=18 November 2012|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-774-6|page=172}}</ref>
Kerala's western coastal belt is relatively flat to the eastern region,<ref name=autogenerated4>{{cite book|author1=Srikumar Chattopadhyay|author2=Srikumar Chattopadhyay And Richard W. Franke|title=Striving for Sustainability: Environmental Stress and Democratic Initiatives in Kerala|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gOrvghLklKoC&pg=PA33|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 2006|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-294-9|page=33}}</ref> and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnected [[brackish]] [[canal]]s, lakes, [[estuary|estuaries]],<ref name="Moss2010">{{cite book|author=Danny Moss|title=Public Relations Cases: International Perspectives|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=s0-CJ3djEdEC&pg=PA41|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 September 2010|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-77336-2|page=41}}</ref> and rivers known as the [[Kerala Backwaters]].<ref name="Thorpe2012">{{cite book|author=Edgar Thorpe|title=The Pearson CSAT Manual 2012|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1cruroSVFoUC&pg=RA3-PA38|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2012|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-6734-4|page=3}}</ref> The state's largest lake [[Vembanad Lake|Vembanad]], dominates the Backwaters; it lies between [[Alappuzha]] and Kochi and is more than {{convert|200|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in area.<ref name="Husain">{{cite book|author=Majid Husain|title=Understanding: Geographical: Map Entries: for Civil Services Examinations: Second Edition|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=_9VGKfQ-sQsC&pg=RA9-PT18|accessdate=18 November 2012|publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education|isbn=978-0-07-070288-2|page=9}}</ref> Around 8% of India's waterways are found in Kerala.<ref name="IWAI_2005">{{Cite journal
| author=Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI—Ministry of Shipping)
| year=2005
| title=Introduction to Inland Water Transport
| journal=IWAI (Ministry of Shipping)
| url=http://iwai.nic.in/Introduction.html
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20050204175110/http://iwai.nic.in/Introduction.html
| archivedate=4 February 2005
| accessdate=19 January 2006 }}</ref> Kerala's [[List of rivers in Kerala|forty-four rivers]] include the [[Periyar River|Periyar]]; 244 km, [[Bharathapuzha]]; 209 km, [[Pamba River|Pamba]]; 176 km, [[Chaliyar River|Chaliyar]]; 169 km, [[Kadalundipuzha River|Kadalundipuzha]]; 130 km, [[Chalakudy River|Chalakudipuzha]]; 130 km, [[Valapattanam River|Valapattanam]]; 129 km and the [[Achankovil River]]; 128 km. The average length of the rivers is 64 km. Many of the rivers are small and entirely fed by [[monsoon]] rain.<ref name=riverreport>{{cite book|last=India.|first=Planning Commission|title=Kerala Development Report|year=2008|publisher=Academic Foundation|isbn=8171885942, 9788171885947|page=224|url=http://books.google.co.in/books?isbn=8171885942}}</ref> As Kerala's rivers are small and lacking in [[river delta|delta]], they are more prone to environmental effects. The rivers face problems such as sand mining and pollution.<ref name="Padmalal">Padmalal D, Maya K, Sreebha S & Sreeja R, 2007, Environmental effects of river sand mining: a case from the river catchments of [[Vembanad lake]], Southwest coast of India, Environmental Geology 54(4), 879–889. [http://www.springerlink.com/content/r6x802r243782121/ springerlink.com]. Retrieved 17 July 2009.</ref> The state experiences several natural hazards like [[landslide]]s, [[floods]], [[lightning]] and [[droughts]]; the state was also affected by the [[2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami]].<ref name="Jha2010">{{cite book|author=M.K. Jha|title=Natural and Anthropogenic Disasters: Vulnerability, Preparedness and Mitigation|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=fICXQSPJwx8C&pg=PA81|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=24 November 2010|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-90-481-2497-8|page=81}}</ref>
===Climate===
With around 120–140 rainy days per year,<ref name="Chacko_2002">{{Cite journal |author=Chacko T |coauthors=Renuka G |year=2002 |title=Temperature mapping, thermal diffusivity and subsoil heat flux at [[Kariavattom]], Kerala |journal=Proc Indian Acad Sci (Earth Planet Sci) |ref=harv }}</ref>{{rp|80}} Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the [[Southwest monsoon|southwest summer monsoon]] and northeast winter monsoon.<ref name="Devrep">{{Cite book |author=Planning Commission, India |title=Kerala Development Report |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC |publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2007 |isbn=978-81-7188-594-7 |page=223 |accessdate=}}</ref> Around 65% of the rainfall occurs from June to August corresponding to the southwest monsoon, and the rest from September to December corresponding to northeast monsoon.<ref name="Devrep"/> Southwest monsoon; The moisture-laden winds, on reaching the southernmost point of the [[Indian Peninsula]], because of its topography, become divided into two parts: the "Arabian Sea Branch" and the "Bay of Bengal Branch".<ref name="Jain">{{cite book|author=RK Jain|title=Geography 10|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=7hOybWJeZN0C&pg=PA110|accessdate=18 November 2012|publisher=Ratna Sagar|isbn=978-81-8332-081-8|page=110}}</ref> The "Arabian Sea Branch" of the Southwest Monsoon first hits the [[Western Ghats]] in Kerala,<ref name="Together with Social Science Term II">{{cite book|title=Together with Social Science Term II|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=oOA1nsSU8JYC&pg=PA112|accessdate=18 November 2012|publisher=Rachna Sagar|isbn=978-81-8137-399-1|page=112}}</ref> thus making the area the first state in [[India]] to receive rain from the Southwest Monsoon.<ref name=autogenerated19>{{cite book|author1=Edgar Thorpe, Showick Thorpe|author2=Thorpe Edgar|title=The Pearson CSAT Manual 2011|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WuBFs6yFRwcC&pg=SL7-PA168|accessdate=18 November 2012|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-5830-4|page=7}}</ref><ref name="Aggarwal">{{cite book|author=by Dr. N.N. Kher & Jaideep Aggarwal|title=A Text Book of Social Sciences|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jV6k0FvIC4sC&pg=RA5-PA16|accessdate=18 November 2012|publisher=Pitambar Publishing|isbn=978-81-209-1466-7|page=5}}</ref> Northeast monsoon: The distribution of pressure patterns is reversed during this season and the cold winds from North India pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and precipitate it in the east coast of peninsular India.<ref name=autogenerated8>{{cite book|author1=Sarina Singh|author2=Amy Karafin|author3=Anirban Mahapatra|title=South India|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8KnLFpjEHpUC&pg=PA15|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 September 2009|publisher=Lonely Planet|isbn=978-1-74179-155-6|page=15}}</ref><ref name="Reddy">{{cite book|author=S.V. Jeevananda Reddy|title=Climate Change: Myths and Realities|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=y_GMTXRtxJ8C&pg=PA71|accessdate=18 November 2012|publisher=Jeevananda Reddy|page=71|id=GGKEY:WDFHBL1XHK3}}</ref> In Kerala, the influence of the northeast monsoon is seen in southern districts only.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Rao |title=Agricultural Meteorology |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=Kd-3lt-yAtAC |publisher=PHI Learning |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-203-3338-3 |pages=173–174 |accessdate= }}</ref> Kerala's rainfall averages 3,107 mm (122 in) annually. Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250 mm (49 in); the mountains of eastern [[Idukki district]] receive more than 5,000 mm (197 in) of [[Precipitation (meteorology)#Orographic precipitation|orographic precipitation]]: the highest in the state. In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. During summer, the state is prone to gale force winds, storm surges, [[cyclone]]-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level.<ref name="Brenkert_Malone_2003">{{Cite journal |author=Brenkert A |coauthors=Malone E |year=2003 |title=Vulnerability and resilience of India and Indian states to climate change: a first-order approximation |journal=Joint Global Change Research Institute |ref=harv }}</ref>{{rp|26, 46, 52}} The mean daily temperatures range from 19.8 °C to 36.7 °C.<ref name="autogenerated14">{{cite web
| url = http://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/tenth/Annexure%203.pdf | title = Opportunities in participatory planning | publisher=[[Department of Town and Country Planning, Kerala]] | page= 14 | accessdate =2013-03-21 }}</ref> Mean annual temperatures range from 25.0–27.5 °C in the coastal lowlands to 20.0–22.5 °C in the eastern highlands.<ref name="Brenkert_Malone_2003"/>{{rp|65}}
{{Weather box|location = Kerala
|metric first = Yes
|single line = Yes
|Jan high C = 28.0
|Feb high C = 30
|Mar high C = 31
|Apr high C = 32
|May high C = 34
|Jun high C = 34
|Jul high C = 30
|Aug high C = 29
|Sep high C = 29
|Oct high C = 30
|Nov high C = 30
|Dec high C = 31
|year high C = 34
|Jan low C = 22
|Feb low C = 23
|Mar low C = 24
|Apr low C = 25
|May low C = 25
|Jun low C = 24
|Jul low C = 23
|Aug low C = 23
|Sep low C = 23
|Oct low C = 23
|Nov low C = 23
|Dec low C = 22
|year low C = 22
|source 1 =<ref name="autogenerated14"/>
|date=May 2012}}
==Flora and fauna==
{{Infobox state symbols
| state = Kerala <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/symbols.htm |title=Kerala Symbols |date= |publisher=Public Relations Dept, Kerala}}</ref>
| country = India
| animal = [[File:Guruvayoor Kesavan Statue.jpg|50px]] [[Indian elephant]]
| bird = [[File:Great hornbill 614.jpg|40px]] [[Buceros bicornis|Great Hornbill]]
| flower = [[File:Konnamaram.JPG|40px]] [[Cassia fistula|Golden Shower Tree Flower]]
| tree = [[File:Coconut tree climbing DSCN0345.jpg|40px]] [[Coconut tree]]
}}
[[File:Haliastur indus -Kerala, India-8.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Brahminy Kite]], commonly known as Krishnapparunthu in the local language of Kerala]]
[[File:Common Lime Butterfly Papilio demoleus by Kadavoor.JPG|thumb|left|200 px|A [[Papilio demoleus|Common Lime Butterfly]] (''Papilio demoleus'') in [[Kadavoor]]]]
{{Main|Flora and fauna of Kerala}}
Most of the biodiversity is concentrated and protected in the [[Western Ghats]]. Out of the 4,000 [[flowering plant]] species 900 species are [[Herbalism|medicinal plants]]; 1,272 of which are [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to Kerala and 159 threatened.<ref name="Sreedharan_2004">{{Cite journal |author=Sreedharan TP |year=2004 |title=Biological Diversity of Kerala: A survey of Kalliasseri panchayat, Kannur district |journal=Centre for Development Studies |url=http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/62.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=28 December 2008 |ref=harv }}</ref>{{rp|11}} Its 9,400 km<sup>2</sup> of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470 km<sup>2</sup>), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100 km<sup>2</sup> and 100 km<sup>2</sup>, respectively), and montane subtropical and [[temperate]] (''shola'') forests (highest elevations—100 km<sup>2</sup>). Altogether, 24% of Kerala is forested.<ref name="Sreedharan_2004"/>{{rp|12}} Two of the world's [[Ramsar Convention]] listed [[wetland]]s—[[Sasthamkotta Lake|Lake Sasthamkotta]] and the [[Vembanad Lake|Vembanad-Kol wetlands]]—are in Kerala, as well as 1455.4 km<sup>2</sup> of the vast [[Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve]]. Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century,<ref name="Jayarajan_2004">{{Cite journal |author=Jayarajan M |year=2004 |title=Sacred Groves of North Malabar |journal=Centre for Development Studies |url=http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/92.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=28 December 2008 |ref=harv }}</ref>{{rp|6–7}} much of the remaining forest cover is now protected from [[clearfelling]].<ref name="Evans2008">{{cite book|author=Julian Evans|title=The Forests Handbook, Applying Forest Science for Sustainable Management|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Ol_CCkYQNKIC&pg=PA235|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=13 June 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-75683-6|pages=235–}}</ref> Eastern Kerala's windward mountains shelter [[tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical moist forests]] and [[tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|tropical dry forests]], which are common in the Western Ghats.<ref name=autogenerated5>{{cite book|author=R. P. Singh, Zubairul Islam|title=Environmental Studies|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gaQptMlw3X8C&pg=PA172|accessdate=18 November 2012|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-774-6|pages=172–}}</ref><ref name="Geer2008">{{cite book|author=Alexandra Anna Enrica van der Geer|title=Animals in Stone: Indian Mammals Sculptured Through Time|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=oQ3quxh9gsgC&pg=PA7|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2008|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-16819-0|pages=7–}}</ref>
Kerala's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: it includes 102 species of [[mammal]]s (56 of which are endemic), [[List of birds of Kerala|476 species of birds]], 202 species of freshwater fishes, 169 species of [[reptile]]s (139 of them endemic), and 89 species of [[amphibian]]s (86 endemic).<ref name="Prasada">{{cite book|author=Prasada|title=Climate Change And Agriculture Over India, 1/e|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=E4c2KjyCRGEC&pg=PA51|accessdate=19 November 2012|publisher=PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.|isbn=978-81-203-3941-5|pages=51–}}</ref> These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction, including soil erosion, landslides, [[Soil salinity|salinisation]], and resource extraction. In the forests, ''sonokeling'', ''[[Dalbergia]] latifolia'', ''anjili'', ''mullumurikku'', ''[[Erythrina]]'', and ''[[Cinnamomum aromaticum|Cassia]]'' number among the more than 1,000 species of trees in Kerala. Other plants include [[bamboo]], wild black pepper, wild [[cardamom]], the [[calamus (palm genus)|calamus]] [[rattan]] palm, and aromatic [[vetiver]] grass, ''[[Vetiver|Vetiveria zizanioides]]''.<ref name="Sreedharan_2004"/>{{rp|12}} [[Indian Elephant]], [[Bengal Tiger]], [[Indian Leopard]], [[Nilgiri Tahr]], [[Common Palm Civet]], and [[Grizzled Giant Squirrel]] are also found in the forests.<ref name="Sreedharan_2004"/>{{rp|12, 174–175}} Reptiles include the [[King Cobra]], [[Viperidae|viper]], [[Pythonidae|python]], and [[Mugger Crocodile]]. Kerala's birds include legion—[[Malabar Trogon]], the [[Great Hornbill]], [[Kerala Laughingthrush]], [[Darter]], [[Southern Hill Myna]] and several emblematic species. In lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such as ''kadu''; [[catfish|stinging catfish]] and ''Choottachi''; Orange chromide—''Etroplus maculatus'' are found.<ref name="Sreedharan_2004"/>{{rp|163–165}}
{{clear}}
==Subdivisions==
{{Main|Districts of Kerala|Corporations, municipalities and taluks of Kerala}}
[[File:Kerala density map1.PNG|thumb|left|160 px|Population density map of Kerala.]]
The state's 14 districts are distributed among Kerala's six regions: [[North Malabar]] (far-north Kerala), South Malabar (northern KerTravancore (southern Kerala) and Southern Travancore (far-south Kerala). The districts which serve as the administrative regions for taxation purposes, are further subdivided into 75 [[tehsil|taluks]]; these have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records. [[Taluks of Kerala]] are further divided into 1453 revenue villages.<ref name="Profile"/>
Consequent to the 74th Amendment to the Constitution of India, the Local self-government Institutions are to function as the third tier of Government and it constitutes 14 District Panchayats, 152 Block Panchayats, 978 Grama Panchayats, 60 Municipalities, 5 Corporations and 1 Township.<ref>{{cite web |title=Local Self Governance in Kerala |url=http://www.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=93&Itemid=2273 |publisher=Government of Kerala |accessdate= }}</ref>
[[Mahé, India|Mahé]], a part of the Indian union territory of [[Puducherry]],<ref>{{GR|India}}</ref> though 647 km away from it,<ref name="ShiraAssociates.2012">{{cite book|author1=Dezan Shira|author2=Associates.|title=Doing Business in India|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9YjXW41yMwQC&pg=PT313|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=30 April 2012|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-642-27618-7|pages=313–}}</ref> is a coastal exclave surrounded by Kerala on all of its landward approaches.<ref name="Menon2002">{{cite book|author=D Banerjea, N. R. Madhava Menon|title=Criminal Justice India Series, Vol. 20|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Axfuc5A8mxMC&pg=PA9|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2002|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=978-81-7764-871-3|pages=9–}}</ref>
In India, self-governance of the major cities rests with [[Municipal Corporations in India|Municipal corporations]]; there are five such bodies governing [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kochi]], [[Kozhikode]], [[Kollam]] and [[Thrissur]].<ref>{{cite web| title=Kerala Sustainable Urban Development Project |url=http://www.ksudp.org |publisher= Local Self Government Department |accessdate= }}</ref> While Thiruvananthapuram the state capital with a population of 750,000, is the largest city of Kerala,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gcis&lng=en&dat=80&geo=-104&srt=pnan&col=aohdq&msz=1500&va=&pt=a|title=India: metropolitan areas|publisher=World Gazetteer|accessdate=10 March 2010}}</ref> Kochi which is the most densely populated city in the state<ref name="Sivaramakrishnan2006">{{cite book|author=Kallidaikurichi Chidambarakrishnan Sivaramakrishnan|title=People's Participation in Urban Governance: A Comparative Study of the Working of Wards Committees in Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and West Bengal|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TJ9dMtfjMToC&pg=PA156|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 2006|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-326-7|page=156}}</ref> holds the second position.<ref name="Population info">{{cite web|title=Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 2011|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2-vol2/data_files/kerala/PPT2_Tables_6B.pdf|work= Cities with population greater than or equal to one lakh by size class in the state, 2011|publisher=Government of India|accessdate=16 October 2011}}{{dead link|date=March 2013}}</ref> [[Kochi metropolitan area]] is the largest [[urban agglomeration]] in Kerala.<ref>{{cite web|title=CITY INFORMATION|url=http://cial.aero/contents/viewcontent.aspx?linkIdLvl2=32&linkid=32|work=Cochin International Airport|publisher=Government of Kerala|accessdate=18 November 2012}}</ref> According to a survey by economics research firm, Indicus Analytics, Thiruvananthapuram, Kozhikode, Kochi, Thrissur and Kannur found place in the 10 best cities in India to spend life; the survey used parameters such as health, education, environment, safety, public facilities and entertainment to rank the cities.<ref>{{cite news |title=Cities best to earn a living are not the best to live: Survey|url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2007-11-26/news/27682663_1_cities-entertainment-indicus-analytics |accessdate= | work=The Times Of India |date=26 November 2007}}</ref>
==Government and administration==
{{Main|Government of Kerala }}
[[File:High Court of Kerala Building.jpg|thumb|A working day view of Kerala High Court in [[Kochi]]]]
Kerala hosts two major political alliances: the [[United Democratic Front (India)]] (UDF); led by the [[Indian National Congress]] and the [[Left Democratic Front (Kerala)]] (LDF); led by the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] (CPI(M)). At present, the UDF is the ruling coalition in government; [[Oommen Chandy]] of the Indian National Congress is the Chief Minister while [[V.S. Achuthanandan]] of the LDF is the [[Leader of Opposition]]. Strikes, protests and marches are ubiquitous in Kerala because of the comparatively strong presence of labour unions.<ref>{{Cite news |title= Protest against frequent strikes |work=The Hindu |publisher=The Hindu |date=5 July 2005 |accessdate=26 November 2007 |url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/07/05/stories/2005070513110300.htm |location=Chennai, India}}</ref><ref>Trade Associations in Kerala: Their functioning and implications, S. Muralidharan, Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development Centre for Development Studies, Thiruvananthapuram, 2004</ref> According to the [[Constitution of India]], Kerala has a [[parliamentary system]] of [[representative democracy]] for its governance; [[universal suffrage]] is granted to state residents.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://niyamasabha.org/codes/govt_2.htm | title=Kerala Government - Legislature | publisher=Government of kerala | accessdate=November 19, 2012}}</ref> The government structure is organised into the three branches:
#Legislature: The [[unicameralism|unicameral]] legislature, the [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]], comprises elected members and special office bearers; the Speaker and Deputy Speaker elected by the members from among themselves. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker and in the Speaker's absence, by the Deputy Speaker. The state has 140 assembly constituencies.<ref>{{cite web|title=History of Kerala Legislature|url=http://kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3776&Itemid=3022|publisher=Government of Kerala|accessdate=17 November 2012|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6CF88hkac|archivedate=17 November 2012}}</ref> The state elects 20 and nine members for representation in the [[Lok Sabha]] and the [[Rajya Sabha]] respectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/intro/p1.htm |title=Our Parliament |publisher=Parliamentofindia.nic.in |date= |accessdate=25 February 2010}}</ref>
#Executive: The [[Governors of Kerala|Governor of Kerala]] is the constitutional head of state, and is appointed by the [[President of India]].<ref name="govern">{{cite web|url=http://www.rajbhavan.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=44&Itemid=2 |title=Responsibilities of Governor, Kerala Rajbhavan}}</ref> Shri [[Nikhil Kumar]] is the Governor of Kerala.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://niyamasabha.org/codes/govt_2.htm |title=Legislative Assembly of Kerala: Official Website |publisher=niyamasabha.org |date= |accessdate=30 July 2009}}</ref> The [[executive (government)|executive authority]] is headed by the [[Chief Minister of Kerala]], who is the ''de facto'' head of state and is vested with extensive executive powers; the head of the party attaining majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed to the post by the Governor.<ref name=govern /> The Council of Ministers, has its members appointed by the Governor, taking the advice of the Chief Minister.<ref name=govern /> Auxiliary authorities known as ''[[panchayat]]s'', for which [[Local Body Election in Kerala|local body elections]] are regularly held, govern local affairs.<ref name="Chaudhary2009">{{cite book|author=Shyam Nandan Chaudhary|title=Tribal Development Since Independence|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KBX1EJVhjGEC&pg=PA235|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2009|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-622-0|page=235}}</ref>
#Judiciary: The [[judiciary]] consists of the [[Kerala High Court]] and a system of lower courts.<ref name="Tōmas2008">{{cite book|author=Ke. T̲t̲i Tōmas|title=Honeybees Of Solomon|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ThWzLmgs5xcC&pg=PA121|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 2008|publisher=Gyan Publishing House|isbn=978-81-212-0966-3|page=121}}</ref> The High Court, located at Kochi,<ref name="Congress(U.S.)2010">{{cite book|author1=U S Congress|author2=Congress (U.S.)|title=Congressional Record, V. 153, Pt. 1, January 4, 2007 to January 17, 2007|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=M3bLOwbeOZYC&pg=PA1198|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=28 October 2010|publisher=Government Printing Office|isbn=978-0-16-086824-5|page=1198}}</ref> has a Chief Justice along with 23 permanent and seven additional ''[[pro tempore]]'' justices as of 2012.<ref>{{cite web|title=High Court of Kerala Profile|url=http://highcourtofkerala.nic.in/profile.html|publisher=High Court of Kerala|accessdate=18 November 2012}}</ref> The high court also hears cases from the Union Territory of [[Lakshadweep]].<ref name="Banerjea2002">{{cite book|author=D. Banerjea|title=Criminal Justice India Series, Vol. 21|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=L6NWL-a14mkC&pg=PA80|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2002|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=978-81-7764-872-0|page=80}}</ref><ref name="SharmaB.k.2007">{{cite book|author1=Sharma|author2=Sharma B.k.|title=Intro. to the Constitution of India, 4/e|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=srDytmFE3KMC&pg=PA261|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 August 2007|publisher=PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.|isbn=978-81-203-3246-1|page=261}}</ref>
[[File:Assembly11.jpg|thumb|left|200 px|The [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]] Building in [[Thiruvananthapuram]]]]
The local self-government bodies; Panchayat, Municipalities and Corporations existed in Kerala since 1959, however, the major initiative to decentralise the governance was started in 1993, conforming to the constitutional amendments of central government in this direction.<ref name="Capdeck">{{cite web | url=http://sdccapdeck.in/publications/Decentralisation.pdf | title=An Introduction to local self governments in Kerala | publisher=SDC CAPDECK | accessdate=November 17, 2012 | author=Mariamma Sanu George | pages=17–20}}</ref> With the enactment of [[Kerala Panchayati Raj Act]] and [[Kerala Municipality Act]] in the year 1994, the state implemented various reforms in the local self-governance.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.kilaonline.org/site_docu/pub200904a.pdf | title=Kerala - A Case Study of Classical Democratic Decentralisation | publisher=Kerala Institute of Local Administration | date=April 2009 | accessdate=November 17, 2012 | author=S M Vijayanand | page=12}}</ref> Kerala Panchayati Raj Act envisages a 3-tier system of local-government with [[Gram panchayat]], [[Block panchayat]] and [[District Panchayat]] forming a hierarchy.<ref name="TandonMohanty2006">{{cite book|author1=Rajesh Tandon|author2=Ranjita Mohanty|title=Participatory Citizenship: Identity, Exclusion, Inclusion|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=oPByu7CWoUEC&pg=PA199|accessdate=17 November 2012|date=29 March 2006|publisher=SAGE|isbn=978-0-7619-3467-7|page=199}}</ref> The acts ensure clear demarcation of power among these institutions.<ref name="Capdeck"/> However, Kerala Municipality Act envisages a single-tier system for urban areas, with the institution of municipality designed at par with Gram panchayat of the former system. Substantial administrative, legal and financial powers are delegated to these bodies to ensure efficient decentralisation.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.kilaonline.org/site_docu/pub200904a.pdf |title=Kerala - A Case Study of Classical Democratic Decentralisation | publisher=Kerala Institute of Local Administration |date=April 2009 | accessdate=November 17, 2012 | author=S M Vijayanand | page=13}}</ref> As per the present norms, the state government devolves about 40 per cent of the state plan outlay to the local government.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.old.kerala.gov.in/dept_panchayat/index.htm | title=Department of Panchayat, Kerala | publisher=Government of Kerala | accessdate=November 17, 2012}}</ref>
{{clear}}
==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Kerala}}
{{See also|Category:Industries based in Kerala}}
[[File:Kerala 15.jpg|thumb|right|200 px|Rural women processing coir threads]]
After independence, the state was managed as a [[democratic socialism|democratic socialist]] [[welfare economy]]. From the 90s, [[neoliberalism|liberalisation]] of the [[mixed economy]] allowed onerous [[Licence Raj]] restrictions against capitalism and [[foreign direct investment]] to be lightened, leading to economic expansion and increase in employment. In the fiscal years 2007–2008, the nominal [[gross domestic product|gross state domestic product]] (GSDP) was {{INRConvert|162414.79|c}}. GSDP growth; 9.2% in 2004–2005 and 7.4% in 2003–2004 had been high compared to average of 2.3% annually in the 80s and between 5.1%<ref name="Mohindra_2003">{{Cite journal |author=Mohindra KS |year=2003 |title=A report on women Self-Help Groups (SHGs) in Kerala state, India: a public health perspective |journal=Université de Montréal Département de médecine sociale et prévention |ref=harv }}</ref>{{rp|8}} and 5.99%{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} in the 90s.<ref name="Mohindra_2003"/>{{rp|8}} The state recorded 8.93% growth in enterprises from 1998 to 2005, higher than the nation's rate of 4.80%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ebookbrowse.com/economic-census-prov-results-2005-pdf-d328816385|title=Pages |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=30 July 2009}}</ref> [[Human Development Index]] rating is the highest in India; 0.790.<ref name="Varma_2005">{{Cite news |author=Varma MS |title=Nap on HDI scores may land Kerala in an equilibrium trap |work=The Financial Express |date=4 April 2005 |accessdate=12 November 2007 |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/old/print.php?content_id=86925 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080617134031/http://www.financialexpress.com/old/print.php?content_id=86925 |archivedate=17 June 2008 }}</ref> This apparently paradoxical "Kerala phenomenon" or "[[Kerala model|Kerala model of development]]" of very high human development and not much high economic development resulted due to a stronger service sector.<ref name="Brenkert_Malone_2003"/>{{rp|48}}<ref name="Tharamangalam_2005">{{Cite journal |author=Tharamangalam J |year=2005 |title=The Perils of Social Development without Economic Growth: The Development Debacle of Kerala, India |journal=Political Economy for Environmental Planners |url=http://www.infra.kth.se/courses/1H1142/Kerala_Paper_4.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=28 December 2008 |ref=harv }}</ref>{{rp|1}} Kerala's economy depends on [[Kerala Gulf diaspora|emigrants working in foreign countries]]: mainly in the [[Persian Gulf|Persian Gulf countries]] such as [[United Arab Emirates]] or [[Saudi Arabia]]), and [[remittance]]s annually contribute more than a fifth of GSDP.<ref name="rem1">{{cite web|url=http://ideas.repec.org/p/ind/cdswpp/328.html|title=Kerala's Gulf connection: Emigration, remittances and their macroeconomic impact 1972–2000|year=2002|author=K.P. Kannan, K.S. Hari}}</ref> As of 2008, the Gulf countries altogether had a Keralite population of more than 2.5 million, who send home annually a sum of {{USD}}6.81 billion, which is more than 15.13% of [[Remittance#Top recipient countries|remittance to India in 2008]]; the highest among [[States and territories of India|Indian States]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/08/19/stories/2008081954710500.htm|title=GCC residency cap may force lakhs to return|first=Biju|last=Govind|newspaper=The Hindu|accessdate=18 November 2012}}</ref>
The service sector; including tourism, public administration, banking and finance, transportation, and communications accounted for 63.8% of the GSDP in 2002–2003 while the agricultural and fishing industries had together 17.2% of the GSDP.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} Nearly half of Kerala's people are dependent on agriculture alone for income.<ref>[http://msmedithrissur.gov.in/secure/admin/writereaddata/Documents/SSFile163011818139.pdf State Profile of Kerala 2010-11]</ref> Around 600 varieties<ref name="Sreedharan_2004"/>{{rp|5}} of rice which are Kerala's most important [[staple food]] and cereal crop<ref name="Balachandran_2004">{{Cite journal |author=Balachandran PG |year=2004 |title=Constraints on Diffusion and Adoption of Agro-mechanical Technology in Rice Cultivation in Kerala |journal=Centre for Development Studies |url=http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/59.pdf |format=PDF|accessdate=28 December 2008 |ref=harv }}</ref>{{rp|5}} are harvested from 3105.21 km<sup>2</sup>; a decline from 5883.4 km<sup>2</sup> in 1990<ref name="Balachandran_2004"/>{{rp|5}}. While, 688,859 [[tonne]] paddy are produced per annum.<ref name = "GOK_2005c"/> Other key crops include coconut; 899,198 ha, tea, coffee; 23% of Indian production,<ref name="Joy_2004">{{Cite journal |author=Joy CV |year=2004 |title=Small Coffee Growers of Sulthan Bathery, Wayanad |journal=Centre for Development Studies |url=http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/83.pdf |format=PDF|accessdate=28 December 2008 |ref=harv }}</ref>{{rp|13}} or 57,000 tonnes<ref name="Joy_2004"/>{{rp|6–7}}), rubber, cashews, and [[spices]]—including pepper, [[cardamom]], vanilla, cinnamon, and nutmeg. Around 1.050 million fishermen haul an annual catch of 668,000 tonnes as of 1999–2000 estimate; 222 fishing villages are strung along the 590 km coast. Another 113 fishing villages dot the hinterland. Kerala's coastal belt of [[Karunagappally]] is known for high background radiation from [[thorium]]-containing [[monazite]] sand. In some coastal panchayats, median outdoor radiation levels are more than 4 [[Gray (unit)#Effect on the body|mGy]]/yr and, in certain locations on the coast, it is as high as 70 mGy/yr.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Nair RR, Rajan B, Akiba S, Jayalekshmi P, Nair MK, Gangadharan P, Koga T, Morishima H, Nakamura S, Sugahara T. |title=Background radiation and cancer incidence in Kerala, India-Karanagappally cohort study. |publisher=Health Physics |date=January 2009|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19066487}}</ref>
Traditional industries manufacturing items; [[coir]], [[handloom]]s, and [[handicraft]]s employ around one million people.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} Around 180,000 small-scale industries employ around 909,859 Keralites; 511 medium- and large-scale manufacturing firms are located in Kerala.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} A small mining sector of 0.3% of GSDP involves extraction of [[ilmenite]], [[kaolin]], [[bauxite]], [[silica]], [[quartz]], [[rutile]], [[zircon]], and [[sillimanite]].<ref name="GOK_2005c">{{Cite journal
| author=Government of Kerala
| year=2005c
| title=Kerala at a Glance
| journal=Government of Kerala
| url=http://www.kerala.gov.in/
| accessdate=22 January 2006 }}</ref> [[Home gardens]] and animal husbandry also provide work for many people. Other major sectors are [[tourism in Kerala|tourism]], manufacturing, and [[business process outsourcing]]. As of March 2002, Kerala's banking sector comprised 3341 local branches; each branch served 10,000 persons, lower than the national average of 16,000; the state has the third-highest bank penetration among Indian states.<ref name="RBI_2002">{{cite web |url=http://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/Publications/PDFs/35585.pdf |title=State/Union Territory-Wise Number of Branches of Scheduled Commercial Banks and Average Population Per Bank Branch |month=March |year=2002 |work=Reserve Bank of India |accessdate=28 December 2008 |format=PDF}}</ref> On 1 October 2011, Kerala became the first state in the country to have at least one banking facility in every village.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-10-01/kochi/30232748_1_financial-inclusion-slbc-credit | work=The Times Of India | title=Now, you can bank on every village in Kerala | date=1 October 2011}}</ref> Unemployment in 2007 was estimated at 9.4%;<ref>{{Cite news |author=Kumar KG |title=Jobless no more? |publisher= Business Line |date=8 October 2007 |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-economy/article1671367.ece |quote=A study by K.C. Zacharia and S. Irudaya Rajan, two economists at the Centre for Development Studies (CDS), unemployment in Kerala has dropped from 19.1[%] in 2003 to 9.4[%] in 2007. |accessdate=16 November 2012}}</ref> [[underemployment]], low employability of youths, and a 13.5% female [[labour force|participation rate]] are chronic issues,<ref name="Nair_2004">{{Cite book |author=Nair NG |editor=Nair PRG, Shaji H |title=Measurement of Employment, Unemployment, and Underemployment |series=Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=81-87621-75-3 |url=http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/72.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=31 December 2008 }}</ref>{{rp|5, 13}} as is the practice of [[Nokku kooli]], 'wages for looking on'.<ref name="Outlook-2008">{{cite news | url=http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?237419 | title=Men (Not) At Work | publisher=[[Outlook (magazine)]] | date=12 May 2008 }}</ref> By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6% respectively.<ref name="princeton6">{{Cite journal |author=Deaton A |date=22 August 2003 |title=Regional poverty estimates for India, 1999–2000 |page=6 |accessdate=12 November 2007 |format=PDF |url=http://www.princeton.edu/rpds/papers/pdfs/deaton_regionalpovertyindia.pdf |ref=harv}}</ref>
The [[Grand Kerala Shopping Festival]] (GKSF) claimed to be Asia's largest shopping festival was started in the year 2007.<ref name="GKSF begins">{{cite news|title=Shopping festival begins|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/shopping-festival-begins/article1959420.ece|publisher=The Hindu|date=2 December 2007|accessdate=2013-01-24}}</ref> Since then it has become an annual shopping event being conducted in the December–January period. During this period stores and shops registered under the GKSF offer wide range of discounts, vat refunds etc. Along with the guaranteed shopping experience, shoppers are provided with gift coupons for a fixed worth of purchase entering them into weekly and mega lucky draws. As compared to shopping festivals being held in other countries, this Festival converts the entire state of Kerala into a giant shopping mall, incorporating not just the big players, but also the small and medium scale industries.
The state's budget of 2012–2013 is {{INR}}481.42 billion.<ref name="Budget">{{cite web|url=http://www.kerala.gov.in/docs/budget/2012-13/1.pdf |title=Budget at a Glance |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=3 October 2011}}</ref> The state government's tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) amounted to {{INR}}217.22 billion in 2010–2011; up from {{INR}}176.25 billion in 2009–2010. Its [[non-tax revenue]]s (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala reached {{INR}}19,308 million in 2010–2011.<ref name="Budget"/> However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to GSDP has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, which have impacted social services.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20080626195846/http://fincomindia.nic.in/pubsugg/memo_ker.pdf Memoranda from States: Kerala]</ref> A record total of 223 hartals were observed in 2006, resulting in a revenue loss of over {{INR}}2000 crore.<ref>[http://www.rediff.com/news/2008/jul/06kerala.htm Kerala: Hartals Own Country?] 6 July 2008</ref>
===Agriculture===
[[File:Paddy fields in Kerala, India.JPG|thumb|left|200 px|A typical paddy field in Kerala]]
Agriculture in Kerala has passed through many changing phases. The major change occurred in the 1970s, when production of rice reduced due to increased availability of rice supply all over India and decreased availability of labour supply.<ref name="Sinha2003">{{cite book|author=B.R. Sinha|title=Encyclopaedia Of Professional Education (10 Vol.)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mdjGoXN3y1AC&pg=PA205|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 2003|publisher=Sarup & Sons|isbn=978-81-7625-410-6|pages=204–205}}</ref> Consequently, investment in rice production decreased and a major portion of the land was shifted for the cultivation of perennial tree crops and seasonal crops.<ref name="Remesh2010">{{cite book|author=Babu P. Remesh|title=Dynamics of Rural Labour: A Study of Small Holding Rubber Tappers in Kerala|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=uOyNsKXSa0gC&pg=PA52|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2010|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-660-2|pages=52–}}</ref><ref name="Commission2008">{{cite book|author=Government of India Planning Commission|title=Kerala Development Report|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC&pg=PA66|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 2008|publisher=Academic Foundation|isbn=978-81-7188-594-7|pages=66–}}</ref> Profitability of crops is reducing due to shortage of farm labourers, the high price of land and the uneconomic size of operational holding areas.<ref name=autogenerated4>{{Cite book |author=Planning Commission, India |title=Kerala Development Report |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC |publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2007 |isbn=978-81-7188-594-7 |page=66 |accessdate=}}</ref>
Kerala produces 97% of the national output of [[black pepper]]<ref name="Limca Book of Records">{{cite book|title=Limca Book of Records|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Y-JtAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2001|publisher=Bisleri Beverages Limited|page=97}}</ref> and accounts for 85% of the area under [[natural rubber]] in the country.<ref name=autogenerated17>{{cite book|title=South Asia 2006|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=YG8bAQAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 December 2005|publisher=Taylor & Francis|page=291}}</ref><ref name="Economic Affairs">{{cite book|title=Economic Affairs|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=StHsAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1998|publisher=H. Roy|page=47}}</ref> [[Coconut]], [[tea]], [[coffee]], [[cashew]], and [[spices]]—including [[cardamom]], [[vanilla]], [[cinnamon]], and [[nutmeg]]—comprise a critical agricultural sector.<ref name=autogenerated3>{{cite book|author1=Srikumar Chattopadhyay|author2=Srikumar Chattopadhyay And Richard W. Franke|title=Striving for Sustainability: Environmental Stress and Democratic Initiatives in Kerala|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gOrvghLklKoC&pg=PA74|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 2006|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-294-9|page=74}}</ref><ref name="Newton">{{cite book|author=James Newton|title=Jay Rai's Kitchen - Keralan Cuisine|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5zDWhOU-I04C&pg=PT3|accessdate=18 November 2012|publisher=Springwood emedia|isbn=978-1-4761-2308-0|pages=3–}}</ref><ref name="B.L.MarkoseMarkose2007">{{cite book|author1=Rajan, S. & B.L.Markose|author2=Baby Lissy Markose|title=Propagation of Horticultural Crops: Vol.06. Horticulture Science Series|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=19zgbxw-YhYC&pg=PA212|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 2007|publisher=New India Publishing|isbn=978-81-89422-48-6|pages=212–}}</ref><ref name="Pradhan2009">{{cite book|author=Pradhan|title=Retailing Management 3E|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8y7Zb_D-_oYC&pg=PA256|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2009|publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education|isbn=978-0-07-015256-4|pages=256–}}</ref><ref name="PradeepkumarPradeep2008">{{cite book|author1=T. Pradeepkumar|author2=Kumar, Pradeep|title=Management of Horticultural Crops: Vol.11 Horticulture Science Series: In 2 Parts|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VHmokNZXbHUC&pg=PA509|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 2008|publisher=New India Publishing|isbn=978-81-89422-49-3|pages=509–}}</ref><ref name="OsellaOsella2000">{{cite book|author1=Filippo Osella|author2=Caroline Osella|title=Social Mobility In Kerala: Modernity and Identity in Conflict|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=rMRw0gTZSJwC&pg=PA235|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=20 December 2000|publisher=Pluto Press|isbn=978-0-7453-1693-2|pages=235–}}</ref> The key agricultural staple is rice, with varieties grown in extensive paddy fields.<ref name="VarshneyRzóska1976">{{cite book|author1=C.K. Varshney|author2=J. Rzóska|title=Aquatic Weeds in South East Asia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lW3fHiDjHNcC&pg=PA100|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=30 June 1976|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-90-6193-556-8|pages=100–}}</ref> [[Home gardens]] comprise a significant portion of the agricultural sector.<ref name="Dobbie2006">{{cite book|author=Aline Dobbie|title=India the Elephants Blessing|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ckpEd4emnCkC&pg=PA123|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 October 2006|publisher=Melrose Press|isbn=978-1-905226-85-6|pages=123–}}</ref> Related [[animal husbandry]] is also important, and is touted by proponents as a means of alleviating rural poverty and unemployment among women, the marginalised, and the landless.<ref name=autogenerated25>{{cite book|author=Government of India Planning Commission|title=Kerala Development Report|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC&pg=PA420|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 2008|publisher=Academic Foundation|isbn=978-81-7188-594-7|pages=420–}}</ref><ref name="Sarma2003">{{cite book|author=Nripendra N Sarma|title=Consumer Cooperatives and Rural Marketing|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=wsT5ICijFUsC&pg=PA19|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2003|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-876-1|pages=19–}}</ref> The state government promotes these activity via educational campaigns and the development of new cattle breeds such as the [[Sunandini]].<ref name="SriRoy">{{cite book|author1=Hemant Roy Sri|author2=Shri Hemant Roy|title=Comprehensive Mcqs In Biology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JSRkZXyTqZsC&pg=PA696|accessdate=18 November 2012|publisher=Golden Bells|isbn=978-81-7968-056-8|pages=696–}}</ref><ref name="NivsarkarVij2000">{{cite book|author1=A. E. Nivsarkar|author2=P. K. Vij|author3=M. S. Tantia|coauthors=Indian Council of Agricultural Research. Directorate of Information and Publications on Agriculture|title=Animal genetic resources of India: cattle and buffalo|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=og5JAAAAYAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2000|publisher=Directorate of Information and Publications of Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research}}</ref><ref name="Pandey2005">{{cite book|author=Aditya Pandey|title=South Asia: Polity, Literacy and Conflict Resolution. Literacy and development in South Asia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=eCy4da--cccC&pg=PA173|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2005|publisher=Gyan Publishing House|isbn=978-81-8205-305-2|pages=173–}}</ref>
[[File:Godsowncountrywatery01.jpg|thumb|center|800px|A scenic landscape, with water filled [[paddy fields]].]]
===Fisheries===
[[File:Fischer backwaters.JPG|thumb|right|200 px|A fisherman in rural Kerala]]
With 590 km of coastal belt,<ref>{{cite web|title=Kerala: Natural Resources|url=http://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=70|publisher=Government of India|accessdate=18 November 2012}}{{dead link|date=March 2013}}</ref> 400,000 hectares of inland water resources<ref>{{cite web|title=Kerala: April 2012|url=http://www.ibef.org/download/Kerala_060710.pdf|publisher=Indian Brand Equity Fund|accessdate=18 November 2012|format=PDF}}</ref> and about 220,000 active fishermen,<ref name="Commission1961">{{cite book|author=India. Planning Commission|title=Third five year plan|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5_G5AAAAIAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1961|publisher=Manager of Publications|page=359}}</ref> Kerala is one of the leading producers of fish in India.<ref name=autogenerated13>{{cite book|author=Government of India Planning Commission|title=Kerala Development Report|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC&pg=PA51|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 2008|publisher=Academic Foundation|isbn=978-81-7188-594-7|page=51}}</ref> According to 2003–04 reports, about 1.1 million people earn their livelihood from fishing and allied activities such as drying, processing, packaging, exporting and transporting fisheries. The annual yield of the sector was estimated as 608,000 tons in 2003–04.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Planning Commission, India |title=Kerala Development Report|url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC |publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2007 |isbn=978-81-7188-594-7 |page=51|accessdate=}}</ref> This contributes to about 3% of the total economy of the state. In 2006, about 22% of the total Indian marine fishery yield was from the state.<ref name="Handbook"/> During the southwest monsoon, a suspended mud bank would be developed along the shore, which in turn leads to calm ocean water and hence peak output from the fishery industry. This phenomenon is locally called ''[[chakara]]''.<ref name="Gulati1984">{{cite book|author=Leela Gulati|title=Fisherwomen on the Kerala Coast: Demographic and Socio-Economic Impact of a Fisheries Development Project|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2he8t3PyLIMC&pg=PA103|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1984|publisher=International Labour Organization|isbn=978-92-2-103626-5|page=103}}</ref><ref name="Journal of Kerala Studies">{{cite book|title=Journal of Kerala Studies|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=EgSSAAAAIAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1987|publisher=University of Kerala.|page=201}}</ref> The fish landings consist of a large variety: [[Pelagic fish|pelagic species]]; 59%, [[Demersal fish|demersal species]]; 23%, [[crustacean]]s and [[Mollusca|molluscs]].<ref name="Handbook">{{cite book | title=Handbook of Marine Fisheries Conservation and Management | publisher=Oxford University Press | author=R. Quentin Grafton, Ray Hilborn, Dale Squires | year=2009 | pages=10–12 | isbn=978-0-19-537028-7}}</ref>
==Transport==
=== Roads ===
{{Main|Roads in Kerala}}
[[File:KSRTC Bus station guruvayur.JPG|thumb|right|200 px|[[Kerala State Road Transport Corporation|KSRTC]] is the major agency providing long-haul public bus service in South Kerala.]]
Kerala has {{convert|145704|km|mi}} of roads; it accounts for 4.2% of India's total. This translates to about {{convert|4.62|km|mi|2}} of road per thousand population, compared to an average of {{convert|2.59|km|mi|2}} in the country. Roads in Kerala include 1,524 km of national highway; it is 2.6% of the nation's total, 4341.6 km of state highway and 18900 km of district roads.<ref>[http://www.keralapwd.net/pwd/public/about.jsp keralapwd.net<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Most of Kerala's west coast is accessible through two [[List of National Highways in India|national highways]]: [[National Highway 47 (India)|NH 47]] and [[National Highway 17 (India)|NH 17]], and the eastern side is accessible through various state highways.<ref name="PWD">{{cite web|title=National Highways in Kerala|url=http://www.keralapwd.gov.in/getPage.php?page=NH%20in%20Kerala&pageId=301|work=Kerala PWD|publisher=Government of Kerala|accessdate=18 November 2012}}</ref> There is also a [[Hill Highway (Kerala)|hill highway]] proposed, to make easy access to eastern hills.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hill Highway|url=http://keralapwd.gov.in/intranet/compRepository/mediagallery/PublicGO/hill_highway_GO.pdf|publisher=Government of Kerala|accessdate=18 November 2012|format=PDF|language= Malayalam}}</ref> [[National Highway 17]] with the longest stretch of 421 km connects [[Edapally]] to [[Panvel]]; it starts from [[Kochi]] and passes through [[Kozhikode]], [[Kannur]] and [[Kasaragod]] before entering [[Karnataka]].<ref name=PWD />
The [[Department of Public Works (Kerala)|Department of Public Works]] is responsible for maintaining and expanding the [[List of State Highways in Kerala|state highways system]] and major district roads.<ref>{{cite web|title=About us|url=http://www.keralapwd.gov.in/getPage.php?page=About%20Us&pageId=256&link=About%20PWD|work=Kerala PWD|publisher=Government of Kerala|accessdate=18 November 2012}}</ref> The Kerala State Transport Project (KSTP), which includes the [[GIS]]-based Road Information and Management Project (RIMS), is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways in Kerala; it also oversees a few major district roads.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Kumar VS |title=Kerala State transport project second phase to be launched next month |work=The Hindu |location=India [[Business Line]] |date=20 January 2006 |accessdate=11 November 2007 |url=http://wayback.archive.org/web/20121010200621/http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2006/01/20/stories/2006012002272100.htm }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Kumar VS |title=Institutional Strengthening Action Plan (ISAP) |work=Public Works Department |publisher=Government of Kerala |year=2003 |accessdate=11 November 2007 |url=http://www.keralapwd.gov.in/pwd/public/isap.jsp |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080512054304/http://www.keralapwd.gov.in/pwd/public/isap.jsp |archivedate=12 May 2008 }}</ref> Traffic in Kerala has been growing at a rate of 10–11% every year, resulting in high traffic and pressure on the roads. Road density is nearly four times the national average, reflecting the state's high population density. Kerala's annual total of road accidents is among the nation's highest. The accidents are mainly the result of the narrow roads and irresponsible driving
.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Kumar KG |title=Accidentally notorious |work=The Hindu |location=India [[Business Line]] |date=22 September 2003 |accessdate=11 November 2007 |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.in/2003/09/22/stories/2003092201111300.htm }}</ref> National Highways in Kerala are the narrowest compared to other parts of the country and will remain so for unforeseeable future, as Kerala state government has requested and got special approval(exemption) for narrow national highways in the state compared to other parts of the country. In Kerala, highways will be 45-meters wide, where as in other states National Highways are minimum 4 lane, 60-meters wide, grade separated highways as well as 6/8 lane access-controlled expressways.<ref>http://www.indianexpress.com/news/kerala-parties-finally-toe-nhai-line-of-45m-wide-highways/661729/</ref><ref>http://www.rediff.com/business/slide-show/slide-show-1-indias-13-super-highways/20110705.htm</ref> NHAI has threatened the kerala state government that it will give high priority to other states in highway development as political commitment to the better highways has been lacking from the government,<ref>http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kerala-against-development-of-five-nhs/article4555024.ece</ref> although State had the highest road accident rate in the country, with most fatal accidents taking place along the State’s NHs.<ref>http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/states-troubled-highways-a-shocking-revelation-for-centre/article4865464.ece</ref>
=== Railways ===
[[File:Tvmcentral.jpg|thumb|200 px|The main Portico of the ''[[Trivandrum Central]]'' Railway Station]]
[[File:Ernakulam Town North Railway Station DSW.jpg|thumb|200px|Ernakulam Town North Railway Station a view from Ernakulam north bridge]]
The [[Indian Railways]]' [[Southern Railway (India)|Southern Railway]] line runs through the state connecting most of the major towns and cities except those in the highland districts of [[Idukki district|Idukki]] and [[Wayanad district|Wayanad]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Introduction|url=http://khsrcl.com/downloads/ch-1.pdf|format=PDF|publisher=Delhi Metro Rail Corporation|accessdate=18 November 2012}}</ref> Major railway transport between [[Beypore]]–[[Tirur]] began on 12 March 1861, from [[Shoranur–Cochin Harbour section]] in 1902, from [[Shenkottai]]–[[Punalur]] on 26 November 1904, from [[Nilambur]]-[[Shoranur]] in 1927, from [[Punalur]]–[[Thiruvananthapuram]] on 4 November 1931, from [[Ernakulam]]–[[Kottayam]] in 1956, from [[Kottayam]]–[[Kollam]] in 1958, from [[Thiruvananthapuram]]–Kanyakumari in 1979 and from [[Thrissur-Guruvayur Section]] in 1994.<ref>{{cite web|title=RailKerala|url=http://www.trainweb.org/railkerala/articles/history.htm|work=Trainweb|accessdate=18 November 2012}}</ref>
The railway network in the state is controlled by two out of six divisions of [[Southern Railway zone|Southern Railway]]; [[Thiruvananthapuram Railway division]] and [[Palakkad Railway Division]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Zonal Dream Of Railway Kerala|url=http://www.yentha.com/news/view/features/the-zonal-dream-of-railway-kerala|work=yentha.com|accessdate=18 November 2012}}</ref> [[Thiruvananthapuram Central]] (TVC) is the busiest railway station and second busiest in the Southern Railway Zone after [[Chennai Central]]. Kerala's major railway stations are [[Kannur]] (CAN), [[Kozhikode]] (CLT), [[Tirur]] (TIR), [[Shornur Junction]] (SRR), [[Palakkad Junction]] (PGT), [[Thrissur Railway Station]] (TCR), [[Aluva]] (AWY), [[Ernakulam Town|Ernakulam Town (North)]] (ERN), [[Ernakulam Junction railway station|Ernakulam Junction (South)]] (ERS), [[Alappuzha]] (ALLP), [[Kottayam]] (KTYM), [[Tiruvalla]] (TRVL), [[Chengannur]] (CNGR), [[Kayamkulam|Kayamkulam Junction]] (KYJ), [[Kollam Railway Station|Kollam Junction]] (QLN) and [[Thiruvananthapuram Central]] (TVC).
<!--[[File:Trivandrum International Airport|frameless|Trivandrum International Airport]]-->
=== Airports ===
[[File:Kochi airport aerial view.jpg|thumb|right|200 px|[[Cochin International Airport]] (CIAL)]]
[[File:The Backwaters of Kerala.JPG|thumb|left|200 px|State Water Transport Department is the main agency providing inland water transport facilities.]]
Kerala has three major international airports; [[Cochin International Airport]], [[Trivandrum International Airport]] and [[Calicut International Airport]]. Two international airports were proposed, at [[Kannur]] and [[Pathanamthitta]] as of 2008.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Cabinet clearance for Kannur airport |work=The Hindu |location=India |date=18 January 2008 |accessdate=24 February 2009 |url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/01/18/stories/2008011855360100.htm }}</ref> The [[Cochin International Airport]] is the busiest and largest in the state, and was the first Indian airport to be incorporated as a [[public limited company]]; it was funded by nearly 10,000 [[non-resident Indians]] from 30 countries.<ref>{{Cite news |title=The three airports in Kerala can be in business without affecting each other |publisher=[[Rediff.com|Rediff]] |date=6 December 1999 |accessdate=11 November 2007 |url=http://www.rediff.com/business/1999/dec/06inter.htm }}</ref>
=== Inland water transport ===
[[File:Junkar Service Cochin.JPG|thumb|Junkar Service Fort Cochin]]
As Kerala has numerous [[Kerala backwaters|backwaters]], waterways are used for commercial [[inland navigation]]. The transportation is mainly done with country craft and passenger vessels.<ref name=Commission2008 /> There are 67 navigable rivers in the state. The total length of the inland waterways in the state is 1687 km.<ref name=autogenerated10>{{cite book|author=Government of India Planning Commission|title=Kerala Development Report|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC&pg=PA207|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 2008|publisher=Academic Foundation|isbn=978-81-7188-594-7|page=207}}</ref> The main constraints to the expansion of inland navigation are lack of depth in the waterway caused by silting, lack of maintenance of navigation system and bank protection, accelerated growth of the [[water hyacinth]], lack of modern inland craft terminals, and lack of a cargo handling system.<ref name=Commission2008 /> A 205 km canal, [[National Waterway 3 (India)|National Waterway 3]], runs between Kottapuram and Kollam.<ref>[http://iwai.gov.in/waterwaysnw3.html Inland Waterways Authority of India website]</ref>
==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Kerala}}
{{See also| List of most populous urban agglomerations in Kerala|Ethnic groups in Kerala|Racial history of Malabar}}
{{India census population
|title = Population trend
|state=
|1951= 13549000
|1961= 16904000
|1971= 21347000
|1981= 25454000
|1991= 29099000
|2001= 31841000
|2011= 33388000
|footnote = Source: 2001 & 2011 Censuses of India<ref name="Census Population">{{cite web |title=Population of India (1951–2001) |work=Census of India |year=2007 |publisher=Indian Ministry of Finance |url=http://indiabudget.nic.in/es2006-07/chapt2007/tab97.pdf |format=PDF|accessdate=28 December 2008 }}</ref><ref name="Tharakan_Navaneetham_1999">{{Cite journal |author=Tharakan PKM|coauthors=Navaneetham K|year=1999 |month=June |title=Population Projection and Policy Implications for Education: A Discussion with Reference to Kerala|journal=Centre for Development Studies|url=http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN010702.pdf |format=PDF|accessdate=28 December 2008|ref=harv}}</ref><ref name="2011Pop">{{cite web |title=Population at a glance |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/kerala/5-fig-ker-9.pdf |format=PDF |publisher=Government of India |accessdate=}}</ref>
}}
Kerala is home to 2.76% of India's population; at 859 persons per km<sup>2</sup>, its land is nearly three times as densely settled as the rest of India, which is at a population density of 370 persons per km<sup>2</sup>.<ref name="Census 2011">http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/data_files/india/Final_PPT_2011_chapter3.pdf/</ref> In the state, the rate of population growth is India's lowest, and the decadal growth of 4.9% in 2011 is less than one third of the all-India average of 17.64%.<ref name="Census 2011">http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/data_files/india/Final_PPT_2011_chapter3.pdf/</ref> Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 by adding 15.6 million people to reach 29.1 million residents in 1991; the population stood at 33.3 million by 2011.<ref name="Census 2011">http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/data_files/india/Final_PPT_2011_chapter3.pdf/</ref> Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} Around 31.8 million Keralites are predominantly of [[Malayali]] descent.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} State's 321,000 indigenous tribal ''[[Adivasi]]s'', 1.10% of the population, are concentrated in the east.<ref name="Kalathil_2004">{{Cite book |author=Kalathil MJ |year=2004 |editor=Nair PRG, Shaji H |title=Withering Valli: Alienation, Degradation, and Enslavement of Tribal Women in Attappady |series=Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=81-87621-69-9 |url=http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/66.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=29 December 2008 }}</ref>{{rp|10–12}} [[Malayalam]], one of the classical languages in India, is Kerala's [[official language]],<ref name="Benedikter2009">{{cite book|author=Thomas Benedikter|title=Language Policy and Linguistic Minorities in India: An Appraisal of the Linguistic Rights of Minorities in India|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vpZv2GHM7VQC&pg=PA90|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2009|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3-643-10231-7|page=90}}</ref> however [[Tamil language|Tamil]] is also widely understood.<ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite book|author=S. C. Bhatt, Gopal K. Bhargava|title=Land and People of Indian States and Union Territories: In 36 Volumes. Kerala|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TDCKdPpbFPAC&pg=PA16|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2006|publisher=Gyan Publishing House|isbn=978-81-7835-370-8|pages=16–}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated20>{{cite book|author=Government of India Planning Commission|title=Kerala Development Report|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC&pg=PA401|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 2008|publisher=Academic Foundation|isbn=978-81-7188-594-7|pages=401–}}</ref><ref name="Pollock2003">{{cite book|author=Sheldon Ivan Pollock|title=Literary Culture in History: Reconstructions from South Asia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ak9csfpY2WoC&pg=PA442|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2003|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-22821-4|pages=442–}}</ref> [[Kannada language|Kannada]], [[Tulu language|Tulu]], [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Mahl language|Mahl]] and various ''Adivasi'' (tribal) languages are also spoken.<ref name=autogenerated20 /><ref name="Saradesāya2000">{{cite book|author=Manohararāya Saradesāya|title=A History of Konkani Literature: From 1500 to 1992|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1YILeUD_oZUC&pg=PA298|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 2000|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=978-81-7201-664-7|pages=298–}}</ref><ref name="KachruKachru2008">{{cite book|author1=Braj B. Kachru|author2=Yamuna Kachru|author3=S. N. Sridhar|title=Language in South Asia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=O2n4sFGDEMYC&pg=PA40|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=27 March 2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-78141-1|pages=40–}}</ref><ref name="Cardona2003">{{cite book|author=George Cardona|title=The Indo-Aryan Languages|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=C9MPCd6mO6sC&pg=PA803|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2003|publisher=Taylor & Francis Group|isbn=978-0-7007-1130-7|pages=803–}}</ref>
As of early 2013, there are close to 2.5 million (7.5% of state population) migrant workers from other states of India in Kerala.<ref>http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/migrant-worker-population-in-kerala-touches-25-m/article4421810.ece</ref>
{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
| caption = Languages of Kerala in 2001<ref>{{cite web | url = http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/35.htm | title = Commissioner Linguistic Minorities (originally from Indian Census, 2001) | archiveurl =http://web.archive.org/web/20071008113359/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/35.htm | archivedate = 8 October 2007 }}</ref>
| other =
| label1 = Malayalam
| value1 = 96.74
| color1 = Orange
| label2 = Tamil
| value2 = 1.87
| color2 = Blue
| label3 = Others
| value3 = 1.39
| color3 = Brown
}}
===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in Kerala}}
In comparison with the rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively little [[sectarianism]].<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Heller P |title=Social capital as a product of class mobilization and state intervention: Industrial workers in Kerala, India |publisher=[[University of California]] |pages=49–50 |date=4 May 2003 |accessdate=25 February 2007 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/2999683.stm |ref=harv }}</ref> According to 2001 [[Census of India]] figures, 56.2% of Kerala's residents are [[Hindus]], 24.7% are [[Muslims]], 19% are [[Christians]], and the remaining 0.1% follows other religions.<ref name="censusindia1">{{cite web |title=Population by religious communities – Census of India |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_data_finder/C_Series/Population_by_religious_communities.htm|accessdate=12 April 2009}}</ref> The major Hindu castes are [[Dalit]], [[Ezhava]]/[[Thiyya]], [[Nair]] and [[Nambudiri]]. The rest of the Hindu castes, including those in the list of [[Other Backward Class]] (OBC), are minority communities. [[Islam]] and [[Judaism]] arrived in Kerala through Arab traders.<ref name="autogenerated2000">Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; David de Beth Hillel, 1832; Lord, James Henry 1977.</ref> [[Muslims of Kerala]], generally referred to as [[Mappila|Moplahs]], mostly follow the [[Shafi'i]] [[Madh'hab]] under [[Sunni Islam]].<ref name="Divakaruni2011">{{cite book|author=Chitra Divakaruni|title=The Palace of Illusions|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W0wLgfQyvFAC|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=16 February 2011|publisher=Pan Macmillan|isbn=978-0-330-47865-6}}</ref> The major Muslim organisations are [[Sunnis of Kerala|Sunni]], [[Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen|Mujahid]] and [[Jamaat-e-Islami Hind|Jama'at-e-Islami]].<ref name="Mohammed2007">{{cite book|author=Prof. U. Mohammed|title=Educational Empowerment of Kerala Muslims: A Socio-historical Perspective|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=PCBdogPnnqsC&pg=PA146|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2007|publisher=Other Books|isbn=978-81-903887-3-3|pages=146–}}</ref> [[Christianity]] is believed to have reached the shores of Kerala in 52 AD with the arrival of [[Thomas the Apostle|St Thomas]], one of the [[Twelve Apostles]] of Jesus Christ.<ref name="T.K. Joseph 1955 27">{{Cite book | title = Six St. Thomases Of South India | author=T.K. Joseph | publisher=University of California | year = 1955 | page = 27}}</ref><ref name = Menachery>Menachery G; 1973, 1998; Mundalan, A. M; 1984; Podipara, Placid J. 1970; Leslie Brown, 1956</ref> [[Saint Thomas Christians]] include [[Syro-Malabar Catholic]],<ref name="Ponnumuthan1996">{{cite book|author=Selvister Ponnumuthan|title=Authentic Interpretation in Canon Law: Reflections on a Distinctively Canonical Institution|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zcedqS4jOusC&pg=PA103|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1996|publisher=Gregorian&Biblical BookShop|isbn=978-88-7652-721-0|pages=103–}}</ref> [[Syro-Malankara Catholic]],<ref name="Williams1996">{{cite book|author=Raymond Brady Williams|title=Christian Pluralism in the United States: The Indian Immigrant Experience|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=w1uk6zZQKzAC&pg=PA144|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=13 November 1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-57016-9|pages=144–}}</ref> [[Malankara Orthodox Church|Malankara Orthodox]],<ref name="Russell2010">{{cite book|author=Thomas Arthur Russell|title=Comparative Christianity: A Student's Guide to a Religion and Its Diverse Traditions|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=FmMarHDbglgC&pg=PT40|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=June 2010|publisher=Universal-Publishers|isbn=978-1-59942-877-2|pages=40–}}</ref> [[Jacobite Syrian Christian Church|Jacobite]]<ref name="AndersonTang2005">{{cite book|author1=Allan Anderson|author2=Edmond Tang|title=Asian and Pentecostal: The Charismatic Face of Christianity in Asia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LDZgKELq7AoC&pg=PA248|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2005|publisher=OCMS|isbn=978-1-870345-43-9|pages=248–}}</ref> and [[Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church|Marthoma]].<ref name="McGuckin2010">{{cite book|author=John Anthony McGuckin|title=The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JmFetR5Wqd8C&pg=PA377|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=15 December 2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-9254-8|pages=377–}}</ref> [[Latin Rite]] Christians were converted by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] in the 16th and 19th centuries,<ref name=autogenerated14>{{cite book|author=A Sreedhara Menon|title=A Survey Of Kerala History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA192|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|pages=192–}}</ref><ref name="RakRaj2008">{{cite book|author1=Knut A. Jacobsen, Selva J. Rak|author2=Selva J. Raj|title=South Asian Christian Diaspora: Invisible Diaspora in Europe and North America|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6L5MxlMIcG0C&pg=PA172|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2008|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-6261-7|pages=172–}}</ref> mainly from communities where fishing was the traditional occupation.<ref name="Subramanian2009">{{cite book|author=Ajantha Subramanian|title=Shorelines: Space and Rights in South India|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lsd55y4KbeYC&pg=PA95|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=21 April 2009|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-8685-0|pages=95–}}</ref> A significant [[Cochin Jews|Jewish community]] existed in Kerala until the 20th century, when most of them [[Aliyah|migrated to Israel]].<ref name="Roland1998">{{cite book|author=Joan G. Roland|title=The Jewish Communities of India: Identity in a Colonial Era|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=kHJccZ92IecC&pg=PA283|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1998|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-0-7658-0439-6|pages=283–}}</ref> [[Jainism in Kerala|Jainism]] has a considerable following in the [[Wayanad district]].<ref name="LockieCarpenter2012">{{cite book|author1=Stewart Lockie|author2=David Carpenter|title=Agriculture, Biodiversity and Markets: Livelihoods and Agroecology in Comparative Perspective|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cZvlmpwviuMC&pg=PT258|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=4 May 2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-54649-5|pages=258–}}</ref><ref name="MathewBaviskar2009">{{cite book|author1=George Mathew|author2=B S Baviskar|title=Inclusion and Exclusion in Local Governance: Field Studies from Rural India|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=DsDOrvROzPEC&pg=PA204|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=6 January 2009|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-81-7829-860-3|pages=204–}}</ref>[[Buddhism]] was dominant at the time of [[Ashoka the Great]] but vanished by the 8th century CE.<ref name="thrikodithanam.org">{{cite web |title=Introduction to Temples of Kerala: Evolution of Religion, Gods, Shrines and Temples |url=http://www.thrikodithanam.org/intro.htm |accessdate=24 June 2009}}</ref>
{{bar box |title=[[Religion in Kerala]]<ref name="censusindia1"/> |titlebar=#ddd |left1=Religion |right1=Percent |float=left|bars= {{bar percent|[[Hinduism in Kerala|Hinduism]]|orange|56.2}} {{bar percent|[[Islam in India|Islam]]|green|24.7}} {{bar percent|[[Christianity in Kerala|Christianity]]|blue|19.0}} {{bar percent|Others|black|0.1}} }}
The [[Cochin Synagogue|Paradesi Synagogue]] at Kochi is the oldest synagogue in the [[Commonwealth Nations|Commonwealth]].<ref name="Judaism">{{cite book|title=Judaism|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OrQlNlULwJgC&pg=PA386|accessdate=18 November 2012|publisher=PediaPress|pages=386–|id=GGKEY:XR3XES7NBKZ}}</ref> Certain Hindu communities such as the [[Kshatriyas]], [[Nair]]s, some [[Ezhava]]s, [[Tiyya]]s and the [[Muslim]]s around [[North Malabar]] used to follow a traditional matrilineal system known as ''[[marumakkathayam]]'',<ref name="Devi2010">{{cite book|author=R. Raman Nair and L. Sulochana Devi|title=Chattampi Swami: An Intellectual Biography|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=K-JRfipEdV0C&pg=PA33|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2010|publisher=South Indian Studies|isbn=978-81-905928-2-6|pages=33–}}</ref><ref name="RaoRao2000">{{cite book|author1=Monika Böck, Aparna Rao|author2=Aparna Rao|title=Culture, Creation, and Procreation: Concepts of Kinship in South Asian Practice|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qQOLBhSPRtIC&pg=PA180|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2000|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-57181-911-6|pages=180–}}</ref> although this practice ended in the years after Indian independence.<ref name="Mathews2001">{{cite book|author=M. Mohan Mathews|title=India, Facts & Figures|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cJERxbWDcJUC&pg=PA133|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2001|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd|isbn=978-81-207-2285-9|pages=133–}}</ref> Other [[Muslim]]s, Christians, and some Hindu castes such as the Namboothiris and the Ezhavas followed ''makkathayam'', a patrilineal system.<ref name=autogenerated21>{{cite book|author=A Sreedhara Menon|title=A Survey Of Kerala History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA219|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|pages=219–}}</ref><ref name="Rao2008">{{cite book|author=K.S. Krishna Rao|title=Global Encyclopaedia of the Brahmana Ethnography|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=M5EWgRdnLxAC&pg=PA309|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2008|publisher=Global Vision Publishing House|isbn=978-81-8220-208-5|pages=309–}}</ref><ref name="GOK_2002b">{{Cite journal
| author=Government of Kerala
| year=2002b
| title=Marumakkathayam
| journal=Department of Public Relations (Government of Kerala)
| url=http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/prd2/keralam/kathayam.htm
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20060521080409/http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/prd2/keralam/kathayam.htm
| archivedate=21 May 2006
| accessdate=29 January 2006 }}</ref> Owing to the former matrilineal system, women in Kerala enjoy a high social status.<ref name="Encyclopædia">"Kerala." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 June 2008</ref> However, gender inequality among low caste men and women is reportedly higher compared to that in other castes.<ref name="Lindberg_2004">{{Cite journal |author=Lindberg A |year=2004 |month=July |title=Modernization and Effeminization in India: Kerala Cashew Workers since 1930 |journal=18th European Conference on Modern South Asian Studies (EASAS) |url=http://www.sasnet.lu.se/EASASpapers/16AnnaLindberg.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=28 December 2008 |ref=harv }}</ref>
{{rp|1}}
{{clear}}
===Gender===
There are a number of possible explanations for the position of women in Kerala. One is the rise of communist governing bodies in Kerala. These governments helped to distribute land and implement education reforms. Another explanation is a tradition of matrilineal inheritance in Kerala.<ref name="Encyclopædia"/> This was common among certain influential castes and is a factor in the value placed on daughters. Christian missionaries also influenced Malayali women in that they started schools for girls from poor families. Opportunities for women like education and gainful employment often translate into a lower birth rate, which in turn, makes education and employment more likely to be accessible and more beneficial for women. This creates an upward spiral for both the women and children of the community that is passed on to future generations of both boys and girls. Low birth rate and high literacy rate are often the twin hallmarks of the healthy advancement of a society.
While having the opportunities that education affords them such as participating in politics, keeping up to date on news, reading religious texts, etc., these tools have not translated into full, equal rights for the women of Kerala. At Cochin University women must be in their hostels by dark, while men are free to roam at any hour. There is a general attitude that women must be restricted for their own benefit. Women who break the rules are often looked down on. A male student from Kerala State expressed his anger at women in Cochin who wore jeans or short skirts, saying that they were "flaunting their sexuality". Kerala is a state in flux where, despite the social progress made so far, caste and gender still influence social mobility.<ref>Brenda Maddox mentions in: Maddox, Brenda. "A Marxist Paradise For Women?" New Statesman. (London, England: 1996) 128 no4440 30 Jan. 14 1999.</ref><ref>Antherjanam, Lalithambika. Cast Me Out If You Will. New York: The Feminist Press, 1997.</ref><ref>Jeffrey, Robin. "Governments and Culture: How Women Made Kerala Literate." Pacific Affairs. Volume 60, Issue 3 (Autumn, 1987), 447-472.</ref>
===Human Development Index===
As of 2011 Kerala has a HDI of 0.790 which comes under the "very high" category and it is the highest in the country.<ref name="IDHR 2011" /> Comparatively higher spending of the government in primary level education, health care and elimination of poverty from the 19th century onward had helped the state to keep a very high HDI;<ref name=UNDP2005>{{cite web|title=Kerala HDR 2005|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/nationalreports/asiathepacific/india/name,3397,en.html|work=Human Development Report|publisher=United Nations|location=Asia and the Pacific}}</ref><ref name=UNDP20054>{{cite web|title=Human Development Report 2005|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR05_complete.pdf|work=Human Development Report|publisher=United Nations|location=Asia and the Pacific}}</ref> report was prepared by the central government's Institute of Applied Manpower Research.<ref name="hdi kerala chart">{{cite web |url=http://www.moneycontrol.com/news/wire-news/human-development-index-rose-21-per-cent-kerala-tops-chart_603650.html |title=Human Development Index rose 21 per cent; Kerala tops chart |date=21 October 2011 |publisher=[[CNBC]]}}</ref><ref name="hdi kerala">{{cite web |url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2011-10-22/news/30309881_1_human-development-education-index-india-s-hdil |title=Growth, reforms lift living standards in India: Human development Index |year=2011 |publisher=Economic Times}}</ref> However, the Human Development Report, 2005 prepared by Centre for Development Studies envisages a virtuous phase of inclusive development for the state since the advancement in human development had already started aiding the economic development of the state.<ref name="UNDP2005"/>
According to a 2005–2006 national survey, Kerala has one of the highest literacy rates among Indian states; 93.91%.<ref name="censusindia.gov.in"/> Life expectancy of 74 years was among the highest in India as of 2011.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/kerala/article2562589.ece | location=Chennai, India | work=The Hindu | title=Kerala tops in literacy rate, health services | date=22 October 2011 | first=J. | last=Balaji}}{{dead link|date=March 2013}}</ref> Kerala's rural poverty rate fell from 69% (1970–1971) to 12% (2010); the overall (urban and rural) rate fell 47% between the 1970s and 2000s.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6% respectively.<ref name="princeton6"/> These changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=EFA (Education for All) Global Monitoring Report |year=2003 |publisher=UNESCO |page=156 |accessdate=12 November 2007 |format=PDF |url=http://www.unesco.org/education/efa_report/chapter4.pdf |ref=harv }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author=Kutty VR |year=2000 |title=Historical analysis of the development of health care facilities in Kerala State, India |journal=Health Policy and Planning |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=103–109 |accessdate=12 November 2007 |format=PDF |url=http://heapol.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/15/1/103.pdf |doi=10.1093/heapol/15.1.103 |pmid=10731241 |ref=harv }}</ref> This focus was maintained by Kerala's post-independence government.<ref name="Brenkert_Malone_2003"/><ref name="Varma_2005"/>{{rp|48}} The [[United Nations Children's Fund]] (UNICEF) and the [[World Health Organisation]] designated Kerala the world's first "[[Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative|baby-friendly]] state" because of its effective promotion of breast-feeding over formulas.<ref>{{cite web|month=August |title=Kerala Named World's First WHO-UNICEF "Baby-Friendly State" |work=United Nations Foundation |url=http://www.unwire.org/unwire/20020801/28062_story.asp |accessdate=14 March 2009 }}</ref> As of 2004, more than 95% of births were hospital-delivered.<ref name="Kutty_2004">{{Cite book |author=Kutty VR |editor=Nair PRG, Shaji H |year=2004 |title=Why low birth weight (LBW) is still a problem in Kerala: A preliminary exploration |series=Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=81-87621-60-5 |accessdate=28 December 2008 |format=PDF |url=http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/57.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|6}} ''[[Ayurveda]]'' (both elite and popular forms),<ref name="Unnikrishnan_2004">{{Cite journal |last=Unnikrishnan |first=E |year=2004 |title=''Materia Medica'' of the Local Health Traditions of Payyannur |journal=Centre for Development Studies |url=http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/80.pdf |format=PDF|accessdate=22 January 2006 |ref=harv}}</ref>{{rp|13}} ''[[siddha]]'', and many endangered and endemic modes of [[traditional medicine]], including ''kalari'', ''marmachikitsa'' and ''vishavaidyam'', are practised. Some occupational communities such as [[Kaniyar]] were known as native medicine men in relation with practice of such streams of medical systems, apart from their traditional vocation.<ref>Angus Stewart, woodburn The Religious attitude: A psychological study of its differentiation, 1927</ref>
These propagate via ''[[gurukula]]'' discipleship,<ref name="Unnikrishnan_2004"/>{{rp|5–6}} and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and supernatural treatments.<ref name="Unnikrishnan_2004"/>{{rp|15}}
Kerala has undergone the "[[demographic transition]]" characteristic of such [[developed nation]]s as Canada, Japan, and Norway.<ref name="Tharamangalam_2005"/>{{rp|1}} as 11.2% of people are over the age of 60,<ref name="Varma_2005"/> and due to the low birthrate of 18 per 1,000.<ref name="Kutty_2004_6">{{Cite book |author=Kutty VR |editor=Nair PRG, Shaji H |year=2004 |title=Why low birth weight (LBW) is still a problem in Kerala: A preliminary exploration |series=Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=81-87621-60-5 |accessdate=12 November 2007 |format=PDF |url=http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/57.pdf |page=6 }}</ref> In 1991, Kerala's [[total fertility rate]] (TFR) was the lowest in India. Hindus had a TFR of 1.66, Christians; 1.78, and Muslims; 2.97.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Alagarajan M |month=December |year=2003 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/h18j4h5w37507h21/ |title=An analysis of fertility differentials by religion in Kerala: A test of the interaction hypothesis |journal=Population Research and Policy Review |doi=10.1023/B:POPU.0000020963.63244.8c|format=PDF |volume=22 |page=557 |ref=harv |issue=5/6}}</ref> The [[sub-replacement fertility]] level and [[infant mortality rate]] are lower compared to those of other states; estimated from 12<ref name="Brenkert_Malone_2003"/><ref name="Kutty_2004_6"/>{{rp|49}} to 14<ref name="Krishnaswami_2004">{{Cite book |author=Krishnaswami P |editor=Neelakantan S, Nair PRG, Shaji H |year=2004 |title=Morbidity Study: Incidence, Prevalence, Consequences, and Associates |series=Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=81-87621-66-4 |url=http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/63.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=31 December 2008 }}</ref>{{rp|5}} deaths per 1,000 live births. According to Human Development Report 1996, Kerala's Gender Development Index was reported to be 597; higher than any other state of India. Many factors, such as high rates of female literacy, education, work participation and life expectancy, along with favourable [[sex ratio|female-to-male ratio]], had contributed to it.<ref name="Joseph">{{cite book |author=Ammu Joseph |editor= Oommen M.A. |year=1999 |title=Rethinking Development: Kerala's Development Experience |series= |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |location= |isbn=978-81-7022-765-6 |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=lzV3bQh-L94C |pages=479–486 |accessdate= }}</ref> Kerala's [[sex ratio|female-to-male ratio]] of 1.058 is higher than that of the rest of India.<ref name="Tharamangalam_2005"/>{{rp|2}}. The state also is regarded as the "least corrupt Indian state" according to the surveys conducted by Transparency International (2005)<ref>{{cite web |title=India Corruption Study — 2005 |publisher=[[Transparency International]] |month=June | year=2005 |accessdate=11 November 2007 |url=http://archive.transparency.org/regional_pages/asia_pacific/newsroom/news_archive2/india_corruption_study_2005}}</ref> and India Today (1997)<ref>{{cite book|author1=Jean Dreze|author2=Amartya Sen|title=India: Development and Participation|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=UpOl35r8UHQC&pg=PA368|accessdate=24 September 2012|date=28 November 2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-925749-2|page=368}}</ref>
Kerala is the cleanest and healthiest state in India.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Sunil Mani|author2=Anjini Kochar|title=Kerala's Economy: Crouching Tiger, Sacred Cows|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=wKeRAtvXl8oC&pg=PA121|accessdate=24 September 2012|date=1 January 2006|publisher=D.C. Books|isbn=978-81-264-1359-1|pages=121–}}</ref> However, Kerala's [[morbidity rate]] is higher than that of any other Indian state—118 (rural) and 88 (urban) per 1,000 people. The corresponding figures for all India were 55 and 54 per 1,000 respectively as of 2004.<ref name="Krishnaswami_2004"/>{{rp|5}} Kerala's 13.3% [[prevalence]] of low [[birth weight]] is higher than that of [[First World]] nations.<ref name="Kutty_2004_6"/> Outbreaks of [[water-borne disease]]s such as [[diarrhoea]], [[dysentery]], [[hepatitis]], and [[typhoid]] among the more than 50% of people who rely on 3 million [[water well]]s is an issue worsened by the lack of [[sanitary sewer|sewers]].<ref name="Roy_2004">{{Cite book |author=Roy MKP |year=2004 |title=Water quality and health status in Kollam Municipality |journal=Centre for Development Studies |url=http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/56.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=28 December 2008 }}</ref>{{rp|5–7}} In respect of women empowerment, some negative factors such as higher suicide rate, lower share of earned income, complaints of sexual harassment and limited freedom are reported.<ref name="Joseph"/>
==Education==
{{Main|Education in Kerala}}
[[File:It@schoolDSCN2389.JPG|thumb|right|200 px|Hardware training for students given by "IT@SCHOOL" project]]
The [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]] flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts including results—series expansion for trigonometric functions.<ref name=roy>{{cite journal|=lastRoy|first=Ranjan|year=1990|title=Discovery of the Series Formula for <math> \pi </math> by Leibniz, Gregory, and Nilakantha|work=Mathematics Magazine|publisher=Mathematical Association of America|volume=63|issue=5|pages=291–306}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Pingree | first = David | authorlink = David Pingree | title = Hellenophilia versus the History of Science | year = 1992 | journal = Isis | volume = 83 | issue = 4 | pages = 554–563 | jstor = 234257 | doi = 10.1086/356288|quote=One example I can give you relates to the Indian Mādhava's demonstration, in about 1400 A.D., of the infinite power series of trigonometrical functions using geometrical and algebraic arguments. When this was first described in English by Charles Whish, in the 1830s, it was heralded as the Indians' discovery of the calculus. This claim and Mādhava's achievements were ignored by Western historians, presumably at first because they could not admit that an Indian discovered the calculus, but later because no one read any more the ''Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society'', in which Whish's article was published. The matter resurfaced in the 1950s, and now we have the Sanskrit texts properly edited, and we understand the clever way that Mādhava derived the series ''without'' the calculus; but many historians still find it impossible to conceive of the problem and its solution in terms of anything other than the calculus and proclaim that the calculus is what Mādhava found. In this case the elegance and brilliance of Mādhava's mathematics are being distorted as they are buried under the current mathematical solution to a problem to which he discovered an alternate and powerful solution.}}</ref> Following the instructions of the [[Wood's despatch]] of 1854, both the princely states, Travancore and Cochin, launched mass education drives with the support from different agencies mainly based on castes and communities and introduced a system of [[grant-in-aid]] to attract more private initiatives.<ref name=Devrep53-58 /> The efforts by leaders, [[Ayya Vaikundar|Vaikunda Swami]], [[Narayana Guru]] and [[Ayyankali]], towards the socially discriminated castes in the state, with the help of community-based organisations like [[Nair Service Society]], [[Sree Narayana Trust|SNDP]], Muslim Mahajana Sabha, Yoga Kshema Sabha (of Nambudiris) and different congregations of Christian churches, led to developement in the mass education of Kerala.<ref name="Devrep53-58">{{Cite book |author=Planning Commission, India |title=Kerala Development Report |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC |publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2007 |isbn=978-81-7188-594-7 |pages=53–58 |accessdate=}}</ref>
In 1991, Kerala became the first state in India to be recognised as a completely literate state, though the effective literacy rate at that time was only 90%. As of 2007, the net enrollment in elementary education was almost 100 per cent and was almost balanced among different sexes, social groups and regions, unlike other states of India.<ref name="Devrep255-258">{{Cite book |author=Planning Commission, India |title=Kerala Development Report |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC |publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2007 |isbn=978-81-7188-594-7 |pages=255–258 |accessdate=}}</ref> The state topped the Education Development Index (EDI) among 21 major states in India in the year 2006–2007.<ref>{{Cite news|author=D Suresh Kumar |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-10-13/india/27920991_1_edi-education-development-index-district-information-system |title=Kerala tops primary education index |publisher=The Times of India |date=13 October 2008 |accessdate=30 July 2009}}</ref> According to the first Economic Census, conducted in 1977, 99.7% of the villages in Kerala had a primary school within 2 km, 98.6% had a middle school within 2 km and 96.7% had a high school or higher secondary school within 5 km.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Srikumar Chattopadhyay |title=Striving for Sustainability: Environmental Stress and Democratic Initiatives in Kerala |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=gOrvghLklKoC |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=2006 |isbn=978-81-8069-294-9 |page=62 |accessdate=}}</ref>
The educational system prevailing in the state schooling is for 10 years, which are streamlined into lower primary, upper primary and secondary school stages with a ''4+3+3'' pattern.<ref name="Devrep255-258"/> After 10 years of secondary schooling, students typically enroll in [[Junior college|Higher Secondary Schooling]] in one of the three major streams—[[liberal arts]], [[commerce]] or science.<ref name="Edu_Ker"/> Upon completing the required coursework, students can enroll in general or professional under-graduate (UG) programmes. The majority of the public schools are affiliated with the [[Kerala State Education Board]]. Other familiar educational boards are the [[Indian Certificate of Secondary Education]] (ICSE), the [[Central Board for Secondary Education]] (CBSE), and the [[National Institute of Open Schooling]] (NIOS). English is the language of instruction in most self-financing schools, while government and government-aided schools offer English or Malayalam.<ref name="Edu_Ker">{{cite web| title=Education in Kerala |url=http://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=54 |publisher=Government of India |accessdate=}}{{dead link|date=March 2013}}</ref> Though the education cost is generally considered low in Kerala,<ref>Najith Kumar, K.K. George, "Kerala's education system: from inclusion to exclusion", [[Economic and Political Weekly]], 10 October 2009, VOL XLIV, NO 41, page 55</ref> according to the 61st round of the National Sample Survey (2004–2005), per capita spending on education by the rural households in Kerala was reported to be {{Indian Rupee}}41 for Kerala, more than twice the national average. The survey also revealed that the rural-urban difference in the household expenditure on education was much less in Kerala than in the rest of India.<ref>Najith Kumar, K.K. George, "Kerala's education system: from inclusion to exclusion", Economic and Political Weekly, 10 October 2009, VOL XLIV, NO 41, page 56</ref>
Universities in Kerala are [[Kannur University]], [[Mahatma Gandhi University]], [[University of Calicut]], [[National University of Advanced Legal Studies]], [[University of Kerala]], [[Cochin University of Science and Technology]], [[Kerala Agricultural University]], [[Thunchath Ezhuthachan Malayalam University]],[[Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit]],[http://www.darulhuda.com and an islamic university (Darul Huda Islamic university]). Premier educational institutions in Kerala are the [[Indian Institute of Management, Kozhikode]] and the [[National Institute of Technology Calicut]] (NITC).
==Culture==
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{{Main|Culture of Kerala}}
The culture of Kerala is composite and cosmopolitan in nature and it's an integral part of [[Indian culture]].<ref name="Menon3">{{cite book |title=Cultural Heritage of Kerala |author=A. Sreedhara Menon |publisher=D C Books |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-264-1903-6 |pages=13–15 |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=S9RMxjdjUVAC |accessdate=}}</ref> It has been elaborated through centuries of contact with neighboring and overseas cultures.<ref name="Bhagyalekshmy_2004d_29">{{cite book|author=S. Bhagyalekshmy|title=Contribution of Travancore to Karnatic Music|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VVftZwEACAAJ|accessdate=6 January 2013|year=2004|publisher=Information & Public Relations Department, Government of Kerala}}</ref> However, the geographical insularity of Kerala from the rest of the country has resulted in development of a distinctive lifestyle, art, architecture, language, literature and social institutions.<ref name="Menon3"/> There are around 10,000 festivals celebrated in the state.<ref name=1000hrs /> The [[Malayalam calendar]], a solar calendar started from 825 CE in Kerala,<ref name="Devika2005">{{cite book|author=J. Devika|title=Her-self: Early Writings on Gender by Malayalee Women, 1898–1938|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Xyr6gXmva-gC&pg=PA5|accessdate=17 November 2012|year=2005|publisher=Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-81-85604-74-9|page=5}}</ref> finds common usage in planning agricultural and religious activities.<ref name="Singh2004">{{cite book|author=Kumar Suresh Singh|title=People of India: Maharashtra|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4bfmnmsBfQ4C&pg=PA1524|accessdate=17 November 2012|year=2004|publisher=Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-81-7991-102-0|page=1524}}</ref>
===Dance===
{{Main|Arts of Kerala }}
Kerala is home to a number of [[performance art]]s. These include five classical dance forms: [[Kathakali]], [[Mohiniyattam]], [[Koodiyattom]], [[Thullal]] and [[Krishnanattam]], originated and developed in the temple theatres during the classical period under the patronage of royal houses.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://www.sruti.org/library/sruti%20ranjani/2004/sruti_ranjani_2004.pdf | title=Classical Dance Art Forms of Kerala | author=Kala Menon | journal=Sruti Ranjini | year=2004 | month=November | volume=14 | issue=1 | page=11}}</ref> [[Kerala natanam]], [[Kaliyattam]], [[Theyyam]], [[Koothu]] and [[Padayani]] are other dance forms associated with the temple culture of the region.<ref name="Menon2008">{{cite book|author=A Sreedhara Menon|title=Cultural heritage of Kerala|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=R7QNGkZKc5wC&pg=PA106|accessdate=17 November 2012|year=2008|publisher=D C Books|isbn=978-81-264-1903-6|page=106}}</ref> Some traditional dance forms such as [[Margamkali]], [[Parichamuttu]] and [[Chavittu nadakom]] are popular among the Christians,<ref name=autogenerated12>{{cite book|author=S. C. Bhatt, Gopal K. Bhargava|title=Land and People of Indian States and Union Territories: In 36 Volumes. Kerala|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TDCKdPpbFPAC&pg=PA352|accessdate=17 November 2012|year=2006|publisher=Gyan Publishing House|isbn=978-81-7835-370-8|page=352}}</ref><ref name="Nārāyaṇappaṇikkar1991">{{cite book|author=Kāvālaṃ Nārāyaṇappaṇikkar|title=Folklore of Kerala|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xH6BAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=17 November 2012|year=1991|publisher=National Book Trust, India|page=146}}</ref><ref name="Kasbekar2006">{{cite book|author=Asha Kasbekar|title=Pop Culture India!: Media, Arts, And Lifestyle|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Sv7Uk0UcdM8C&pg=PA43|accessdate=17 November 2012|year=2006|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-636-7|pages=43–44}}</ref> while [[Oppana]] and [[Duffmuttu]] are popular among the Muslims of the state.<ref name=autogenerated12 /><ref name=autogenerated22>{{cite book|author=Motilal (UK) Books of India|title=Tourist Guide Kerala|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZYfRBcLdTNYC&pg=PA8|accessdate=17 November 2012|date=1 February 2008|publisher=Sura Books|isbn=978-81-7478-164-2|page=8}}</ref>
===Music===
Development of classical music in Kerala is attributed to the contributions it received from the traditional performance arts associated with the temple culture of Kerala.<ref name="Menon2">{{cite book |title=The Legacy of Kerala |author=A. Sreedhara Menon |publisher=D C Books |year=1982 |isbn=978-81-264-2157-2 |pages=48–51 |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=S9RMxjdjUVAC |accessdate=}}</ref> Development of the indigenous classical music form, [[Sopana Sangeetham]], illustrates the rich contribution that temple culture has made to the arts of Kerala.<ref name="Menon2"/> [[Carnatic music]] dominates Keralite traditional music. This was the result of [[Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma]]'s popularisation of the genre in the 19th century.<ref name="Bhagyalekshmy_2004d_29" /> Raga-based renditions known as ''sopanam'' accompany ''kathakali'' performances.<ref name="SchechnerAppel1990">{{cite book|author1=Richard Schechner|author2=Willa Appel|title=By Means of Performance: Intercultural Studies of Theatre and Ritual|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=K5ZuV_nn7KkC&pg=PA145|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=25 May 1990|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-33915-5|page=145}}</ref> ''Melam''; including the ''paandi'' and ''panchari'' variants, is a more percussive style of music:<ref name=autogenerated9>{{cite book|author=Om Gupta|title=Encyclopaedia Of India Pakistan & Bangladesh|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VY1nTMBQ9vQC&pg=PA1840|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 April 2006|publisher=Gyan Publishing House|isbn=978-81-8205-389-2|page=1840}}</ref> it is performed at ''[[mandir|Kshetram]]''-centered festivals using the ''[[chenda]]''.<ref name="BroughtonEllingham2000">{{cite book|author1=Simon Broughton|author2=Mark Ellingham|author3=Richard Trillo|title=World Music Volumn 2 Latin and North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific: The Rough Guide|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QzX8THIgRjUC&pg=PA97|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2000|publisher=Rough Guides|isbn=978-1-85828-636-5|page=97}}</ref> ''[[Panchavadyam]]'' is a different form of percussion ensemble, in which artists use five types of percussion instrument.<ref name=autogenerated11>{{cite book|author=Om Gupta|title=Encyclopaedia Of India Pakistan & Bangladesh|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VY1nTMBQ9vQC&pg=PA1838|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 April 2006|publisher=Gyan Publishing House|isbn=978-81-8205-389-2|page=1838}}</ref> Kerala's visual arts range from [[Murals of Kerala|traditional murals]] to the works of [[Raja Ravi Varma]], the state's most renowned painter.<ref name="Menon2"/> Most of the castes and communities in Kerala have rich collections of folk songs and ballads associated with a variety of themes; [[Vadakkan Pattukal]] (Northern Ballads), ''Thekkan pattukal'' (Southern Ballads), ''Vanchi pattukal'' (Boat Songs), ''[[Mappila Pattukal]] (Muslim songs) and ''Pallipattukal'' (Church songs) are a few of them.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Legacy of Kerala |author=A. Sreedhara Menon |publisher=D C Books |year=1982 |isbn=978-81-264-2157-2 |page=41 |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=S9RMxjdjUVAC |accessdate=}}</ref>
===Cinema===
{{Main|Cinema of Kerala}}
[[Malayalam Cinema|Malayalam films]] carved a niche for themselves in the Indian film industry with the presentation of social themes.<ref name="Menon">{{cite book | title=Cultural Heritage of Kerala |first=Sreedhara |last=Menon |publisher=D C Books |year=2008 |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=R7QNGkZKc5wC |isbn=81-264-1903-2 |pages=128–129}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature |first=Amaresh |last=Datta |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |year=1987 |url=http://books.google.co.in/books/about/Encyclopaedia_of_Indian_Literature.html?id=ObFCT5_taSgC&redir_esc=y |isbn=978-81-260-1803-1 |pages=751–753}}</ref> Directors from Kerala, like [[Adoor Gopalakrishnan]], [[John Abraham (director)|John Abraham]], [[Kamal (director)|Kamal]] and [[G. Aravindan]], have made a considerable contribution to the Indian [[parallel cinema]]. Kerala has also given birth to numerous actors, such as [[Bharath Gopi]], [[Prem Nazir]], [[Mammotty]], [[Mohanlal]], [[Suresh Gopi]], [[Dileep]], [[Murali (Malayalam actor)|Murali]], [[Oduvil Unnikrishnan]], [[Cochin Haneefa]], [[Thilakan]] and [[Nedumudi Venu]]. Late Malayalam actor [[Prem Nazir]] holds the world record for having acted as the protagonist of over 720 movies.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/mag/2003/11/02/stories/2003110200250500.htm|title=Magic of Sophia Loren |date=2 October 2003|accessdate=200–07–12|work=The Hindu|location=Chennai, India}}</ref> Since 1980s, actors [[Mammootty]] and [[Mohanlal]] have dominated the movie industry; Mammootty has won three national awards while Mohanlal has two to his credit.<ref>{{cite book |title=Sura's Year Book 2006 |author=Subburaj V.V.K |page=620|isbn=978-81-7254-124-8 |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=Fz2WDD8sB0MC |publisher=Sura Books}}</ref>
===Literature===
[[Malayalam literature]] starts from the late medieval period and includes such notable writers as the 14th-century [[Niranam poets]] (Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar),<ref name="Nair1967">{{cite book|author=P. K. Parameswaran Nair|title=History of Malayalam literature|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cHNkAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1967|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|page=296}}</ref><ref name="Laet1994">{{cite book|author=Sigfried J. de Laet|title=History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ixCyd2lByggC&pg=PA407|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1994|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-102813-7|page=407}}</ref> and the 17th-century poet [[Ezhuthachan|Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan]], whose works mark the dawn of both modern Malayalam language and poetry.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite book|author=S. C. Bhatt, Gopal K. Bhargava|title=Land and People of Indian States and Union Territories: In 36 Volumes. Kerala|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TDCKdPpbFPAC&pg=PA164|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2006|publisher=Gyan Publishing House|isbn=978-81-7835-370-8|page=164}}</ref><ref name="George1998">{{cite book|author=K. M. George|title=Eng when Poetry Comes|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=MZqqyxVkufQC&pg=PA58|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 1998|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=978-81-260-0413-3|page=58}}</ref> [[Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar]] and [[Kerala Varma Valiakoi Thampuran]] are noted for their contribution to Malayalam prose.<ref name=autogenerated16>{{cite book|author=P. K. Parameswaran Nair|title=History of Malayalam literature|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cHNkAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1967|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|pages=118–121}}</ref><ref name="Sinhā2009">{{cite book|author=Madhubālā Sinhā|title=Encyclopaedia of South Indian literature|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8qQpAQAAIAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2009|publisher=Anmol Publ.|isbn=978-81-261-3740-4|page=97}}</ref><ref name="Vilanilam1987">{{cite book|author=John V. Vilanilam|title=Religious communication in India|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=a0UeAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1987|publisher=Kairali Books International|page=66}}</ref> The "[[triumvirate poets of modern malayalam|triumvirate of poets]]" (''Kavithrayam''): [[Kumaran Asan]], [[Vallathol Narayana Menon]], and [[Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer]], are recognised for moving Keralite poetry away from archaic sophistry and metaphysics, and towards a more [[lyrics|lyrical]] mode.<ref name="Al̲ikkōṭȧ1979">{{cite book|author=Sukumār Al̲ikkōṭȧ|title=Mahakavi Ulloor|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1VkOAAAAYAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1979|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|page=52}}</ref><ref name="Indian and Foreign Review">{{cite book|title=Indian and Foreign Review|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=XaRnAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1983|publisher=Publications Division of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India|page=25}}</ref><ref name="Tarakan1990">{{cite book|author=Ke. Eṃ Tarakan|title=A brief survey of Malayalam literature: history of literature|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3nhkAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1990|publisher=K.M. Tharakan|pages=41–52}}</ref>
In the second half of the 20th century, [[Jnanpith]] winning poets and writers like [[G. Sankara Kurup]], [[S. K. Pottekkatt]], [[Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai]], [[M. T. Vasudevan Nair]] and [[O. N. V. Kurup]] had made valuable contributions to the modern Malayalam literature.<ref name=autogenerated24>{{cite book|author=Subodh Kapoor|title=The Indian Encyclopaedia: Biographical, Historical, Religious, Administrative, Ethnological, Commercial and Scientific. Mahi-Mewat|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mc6C5dVHbGAC&pg=PA4542|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2002|publisher=Cosmo|isbn=978-81-7755-272-0|page=4542}}</ref><ref name="Accessions List, South Asia">{{cite book|title=Accessions List, South Asia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lPcoAQAAIAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=July 1994|publisher=E.G. Smith for the U.S. Library of Congress Office, New Delhi|page=21}}</ref><ref name="Indian Writing Today">{{cite book|title=Indian Writing Today|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1wUtAQAAIAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1967|publisher=Nirmala Sadanand Publishers|page=21}}</ref><ref name="DattaAkademi1987">{{cite book|author1=Amaresh Datta|author2=Sahitya Akademi|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: K to Navalram|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QaIRAQAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1987|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|page=2394}}</ref><ref name="Malayalam Literary Survey">{{cite book|title=Malayalam Literary Survey|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=k5JkAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1993|publisher=Kerala Sahitya Akademi|page=19}}</ref> Later, writers like [[O. V. Vijayan]], [[Kamaladas]], [[M. Mukundan]], [[Arundhati Roy]], had gained international recognition.<ref name="MukundanPillai2004">{{cite book|author1=Eṃ Mukundan|author2=C. Gopinathan Pillai|title=Eng Adityan Radha Adn Others|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1N5QcHakKdoC&pg=PP3|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 2004|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=978-81-260-1883-3|page=3}}</ref><ref name="Maheshwari2002">{{cite book|author=Ed. Vinod Kumar Maheshwari|title=Perspectives On Indian English Literature|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JcY2-ldWIKsC&pg=PA126|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 2002|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|isbn=978-81-269-0093-0|page=126}}</ref><ref name="Chaudhuri2008">{{cite book|author=Amit Chaudhuri|title=Clearing a Space: Reflections On India, Literature, and Culture|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AQeN2PoAx2IC&pg=PA44|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2008|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=978-1-906165-01-7|pages=44–45}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Indian's First Novel Wins Booker Prize in Britain |work=New York Times |date=15 October 1997 |accessdate=11 November 2007 |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A01E6DD173FF936A25753C1A961958260 | first=Sarah | last=Lyall}}</ref>
===Cuisine===
{{Main|Cuisine of Kerala}}
Kerala cuisine has a multitude of both vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes prepared using fish, poultry and meat. Culinary spices have been cultivated in Kerala for millennia and they are characteristic of its cuisine.<ref name=autogenerated6>{{cite book|author1=Murdoch Books Pty Limited|author2=Murdoch Books Test Kitchen|title=India|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=d_cHBuYD3CQC&pg=PA10|accessdate=17 November 2012|date=1 July 2010|publisher=Murdoch Books|isbn=978-1-74196-438-7|page=10}}</ref> Rice is a dominant staple that is eaten at all times of day.<ref name="Majumdar2010">{{cite book|author=Majumdar|title=Consumer Behaviour: Insights From Indian Market|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KF57x1Nrn2UC&pg=RA1-PA79|accessdate=17 November 2012|year=2010|publisher=PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.|isbn=978-81-203-3963-7|page=181}}</ref> Breakfast dishes are frequently based on the rice preparations ''[[idli]]'', ''[[puttu]]'' ''[[Idiyappam]]'', or pulse-based [[Vada (food)|vada]] or [[tapioca]].<ref name="Muthachen1970">{{cite book|author=Rachel Muthachen|title=Regional Indian Recipes|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=h5xXz_UFV7QC&pg=PA1|accessdate=17 November 2012|date=1 January 1970|publisher=Jaico Publishing House|isbn=978-81-7224-035-6|page=1}}</ref> These may be accompanied by [[chutney]], ''[[Chickpea|kadala]]'', ''[[payasam]]'', ''[[Mung bean|payar]] [[pappadam]]'', ''[[Appam]]'', egg masala and fish curry.<ref name=Newton /> Lunch dishes include [[rice and curry]] along with ''[[rasam]]'', ''pulisherry'' and ''[[sambar (dish)|sambar]]''.<ref name=autogenerated15>{{cite book|author=James Newton|title=Jay Rai's Kitchen - Keralan Cuisine|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5zDWhOU-I04C&pg=PT4|accessdate=17 November 2012|publisher=Springwood emedia|isbn=978-1-4761-2308-0|pages=4–}}</ref> ''[[Sadhya]]'' is a vegetarian meal, often served on a banana leaf and followed with a cup of [[payasam]].<ref name="Kannampilly2003">{{cite book|author=Vijayan Kannampilly|title=Essential Kerala Cook Book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pYfOCaAPb3sC&pg=PA11|accessdate=17 November 2012|date=30 May 2003|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-302950-2|pages=10–11}}</ref> Popular snacks include banana chips, yam crisps, tapioca chips, ''unniyappam'' and ''kuzhalappam''.<ref name="Kerala with Lakshadweep">{{cite book|title=Kerala with Lakshadweep|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=yJJuAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=17 November 2012|date=1 January 2005|publisher=Outlook Publishing|page=27}}</ref><ref name="Koilparampil1982">{{cite book|author=George Koilparampil|title=Caste in the Catholic community in Kerala: a study of caste elements in the inter rite relationships of Syrians and Latins|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=nXnaAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=17 November 2012|year=1982|publisher=Dept. of Sociology, St. Teresa's College|page=233}}</ref><ref name="(Swami.)2000">{{cite book|author=Paramatmananda (Swami.)|title=Talks|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=p77mUECpIjgC|accessdate=17 November 2012|year=2000|publisher=Mata Amritanandamayi Center|isbn=978-1-879410-79-4|page=24}}</ref> Non-vegetarian dishes, including those with beef and pork, are popular in the state.<ref>{{cite book|last=Chatterjee|first=editors: Ashok K. Dutt, H.N. Misra, Meera|title=Explorations in applied geography|year=2008|publisher=Asoke K. Ghosh, Prentice-Hall of India, Private Limited|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-203-3384-0|url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=YcaFp3g36l8C&dq|edition=Eastern economy ed.}}</ref> Sea food specialities include [[karimeen]], prawn, shrimp and other crustacean dishes.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kerala Cuisine |url=http://www.ecotours.in/kerala-cuisine.htm | publisher=Ecotours |year= |accessdate= }}</ref>
One of the popular non-vegetarian cuisine in North Kerala is the Malabar biriyani, Kozhikode biriyani and [[Thalassery biriyani]] are its variations. The specialty is that it uses Khyma Rice, (a fragrant, short or small size, Bangladeshi rice) and "do not" use basmati like other biriyani recipe.<ref>http://www.mysingaporekitchen.com/2012/11/thalassery-biriyani.html</ref>
===Elephants===
Elephants have been an integral part of culture of the state. Kerala is home to the largest domesticated population of elephant in India—about 700 [[Indian elephants]], owned by temples as well as individuals.<ref name="Varghese2006">{{cite book|author=Theresa Varghese|title=Stark World Kerala|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lDhuAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=17 November 2012|year=2006|publisher=Stark World Pub.|isbn=978-81-902505-1-1|page=224}}</ref> These elephants are mainly employed for the processions and displays associated with festivals celebrated all around the state. About 10,000 festivals are celebrated in the state annually and some animal lovers have sometimes raised concerns regarding the overwork of domesticated elephants.<ref name=1000hrs>{{cite news |title=India's overworked elephants |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8533776.stm |publisher=BBC |year=2010}}</ref> In Malayalam literature, elephants are referred to as the 'sons of the ''[[sahyadri|sahya]]''.<ref name="Satchidanandan2001">{{cite book|author=K. Satchidanandan|title=Indian Poetry: Modernism and After|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AXiNXRM_KzMC&pg=PR14|accessdate=17 November 2012|year=2001|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=978-81-260-1092-9|pages=14–}}</ref> The elephant is the state animal of Kerala and is featured on the emblem of the [[Government of Kerala]].<ref name="Profile">{{cite web |title=About Kerala |url=http://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=37 |publisher=Government of Kerala |accessdate=17 November 2012 }}{{dead link|date=March 2013}}</ref>
==Media==
{{Main|Media in Kerala}}
The media, telecommunications, broadcasting and cable services are regulated by the [[Telecom Regulatory Authority of India]]. The National Family Health Survey – 3, conducted in 2007, ranked Kerala as a state with the [[Indian states ranking by media exposure|highest media exposure in India]]. Dozens of newspapers are published in Kerala, in nine major languages,<ref name=rniindia>{{cite web
|url = https://rni.nic.in/pii.htm
|archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5msdKSAqi
|archivedate = 18 January 2010| title = General Review| accessdate =1 September 2006
|publisher=Registrar of Newspapers for India }}</ref> but principally Malayalam and English.<ref name=autogenerated7>{{cite book|author=K. M. George|title=Eng when Poetry Comes|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=MZqqyxVkufQC&pg=PA186|accessdate=17 November 2012|date=1 January 1998|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=978-81-260-0413-3|page=186}}</ref> Most widely circulating [[List of Malayalam language newspapers|Malayalam-language newspapers]] are ''[[Malayala Manorama]], [[Mathrubhumi]], [[Madhyamam]], [[Deshabhimani]], [[Mangalam]], [[Kerala Kaumudi]], [[Chandrika]], [[Thejas]], [[Udaya keralam]], [[Janayugam]], [[Janmabhumi]], [[Deepika (newspaper)|Deepika]]'' and ''[[Siraj Daily]]''. [[List of Malayalam periodicals|Major Malayalam periodicals]] include ''[[Mathrubhumi]], [[India Today|India Today Malayalam]], [[Madhyamam Weekly]], [[Grihalakshmi]], [[Vanitha]], Dhanam, [[Chithrabhumi]]'', and ''[[Bhashaposhini]]''.
The English reading population is slowly gaining strength in Kerala. [[The Hindu]] is the largest read newspaper in the State; followed by [[Deccan Chronicle]], [[The New Indian Express]] and [[The Times of India]].
[[Doordarshan]] is the state-owned television broadcaster. [[Multi system operator]]s provide a mix of Malayalam, English and international channels via cable television. Some of the popular Malayalam television channels are [[Asianet]], [[Surya TV]], [[Kiran TV]], [[Mazhavil Manorama]], [[Manorama News]], [[Indiavision]], [[Kairali TV]], [[WE TV|Kairali WE]], [[Kairali People]], [[Yes Indiavision]], [[Asianet News]], [[Asianet Plus]], [[Asianet Movies]], [[Amrita TV]], [[Reporter]], [[Jaihind]], [[Jeevan TV]], [[Mathrubhumi News]], [[Kaumudi]], [[Shalom TV]], [[Powervision]], [[Goodness]], [[Athmeyayathra]] and [[Media One TV]]. Television serials, reality shows and the Internet have become major sources of entertainment and information for the people of Kerala. A Malayalam version of [[Google News]] was launched in September 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.google.com/news?ned=ml_in|title=Google Malayalam News}}</ref> A sizeable "people's science" movement has taken root in the state, and such activities as writers' cooperatives are becoming increasingly common.<ref name="Tharamangalam_2005"/><ref name="Ranjith_2004">{{Cite book |author=Ranjith KS |editor=Nair PRG, Shaji H |year=2004 |title=Rural Libraries of Kerala |series=Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=81-87621-81-8 |pages=20–21 |url=http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/78.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=28 December 2008 }}</ref>{{rp|2}} [[BSNL]], [[Reliance Infocomm]], [[Bharti Airtel|Airtel]], [[Vodafone]], [[Idea]], [[Tata Docomo]] and [[Aircel]] are the major cell phone service providers in the state.<ref name="TRAI2012">{{cite web |title=Press Release, TRAI |publisher=TRAI |url=http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/PressRealease/Document/InfoPress-Telecom%20Subscription%20Data_%2029022012.pdf |year=2012 |accessdate= }}</ref> [[Broadband]] Internet services are widely available throughout the state; some of the major [[ISP]]s are [[BSNL]], [[Asianet|Asianet Satellite communications]], [[Reliance Communications]], [[Bharti Airtel|Airtel]] and [[VSNL]]. According to the Telecom Regulatory Commission of India (TRAI) report, as of January 2012 the total number of wireless phone subscribers in Kerala is about 34.3 million and the wireline subscriber base is at 3.2 million, accounting for the [[Telephone Density|telephone density]] of 107.77.<ref name="TRAI2012"/> Unlike in many other States, the urban-rural divide is not visible in Kerala with respect to mobile phone penetration.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tele-density in Kerala |publisher=The Hindu |url=http://www.hindu.com/2011/06/08/stories/2011060857900500.htm |year=2011 |accessdate= }}</ref>
==Sports==
{{Main|Sports in Kerala}}
[[Image:JasmineSimhalan-kalaripayatt-silambam.gif|thumb|right|450px|A ''kalaripayattu'' practitioner.]]
By 21st century, almost all of the native sports and games from Kerala have either disappeared or become just an art form performed during local festivals; including [[Poorakkali]], [[Padayani]], Thalappandukali, Onathallu, Parichamuttukali, Velakali, Kilithattukali etc.<ref name="PRD-sports">{{cite web |url=http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/sportsmain.htm | title=Sports and Games in Kerala | publisher=Public Relations Dept, Kerala |year=2002 | accessdate=9 June 2012}}</ref> However, ''[[Kalaripayattu]]'', regarded as "the mother of all martial arts in the world", as an exception was practised as indigenous martial sport.<ref>{{cite book | title=Muay Thai | publisher=Meyer & Meyer Verlag | author=Arnaud Van Der Veere | year=2012 | page=8 | isbn=978-1-84126-328-1}}</ref> Another traditional sport of Kerala is the boat race, especially the race of [[Snake boat]]s.<ref name="PRD-sports"/>
Cricket and football became popular in the state; both were introduced in Malabar during the British colonial period in the 19th century. Cricketers, like [[Tinu Yohannan]],<ref>{{Cite news |title=It's advantage Tinu at the Mecca of cricket |publisher=The Hindu |date=13 June 2002 |accessdate=11 November 2007|url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/06/13/stories/2002061300030400.htm|archiveurl=http://0-web.archive.org.innopac.up.ac.za/web/20080420214041/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/06/13/stories/2002061300030400.htm|archivedate=20 April 2008 |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> [[Shanthakumaran Sreesanth]]<ref name="India Wins World Twenty20 Thriller">{{Cite news |title=India Wins World Twenty20 Thriller |publisher=The Hindu |date=25 September 2007 |accessdate=11 November 2007 |url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/09/25/stories/2007092559400100.htm |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> and [[Abey Kuruvilla]],<ref>{{cite web | url=http://content-aus.cricinfo.com/ci/content/player/30182.html | title=Abey Kuruvilla-Profile | publisher=ESPN | accessdate=9 June 2012}}</ref> found places in the national cricket team. However, the [[Kerala cricket team]] had never won or performed well at the [[Ranji Trophy]].<ref name="PRD-sports"/> A cricket club from Kerala, the [[Kochi Tuskers Kerala|Kochi Tuskers]], played in the [[Indian Premier League]]'s [[2011 Indian Premier League|third season]]. However, the team was disbanded after the season because of conflict of interests among its franchises.<ref name="India Wins World Twenty20 Thriller"/> Football is one of the most widely played and watched sport with huge support for club and district level matches.Kerala is one of the major footballing states in India along with West Bengal and Goa and has produced national players of the likes of [[I. M. Vijayan]], [[C. V. Pappachan]], [[V. P. Sathyan]], and [[Jo Paul Ancheri]].<ref>[http://0-web.archive.org.innopac.up.ac.za/web/20080429194252/http://www.the-aiff.com/awards.php AIFF Award Player of the Year] – All India Football Federation</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=James Wray and Ulf Stabe |url=http://www.monstersandcritics.com/news/india/news/article_1356109.php/Viva_marks_the_resurgence_of_Kerala_football |title=Viva marks the resurgence of Kerala football |publisher=Monstersandcritics.com |date=15 September 2007 |accessdate=30 July 2009}}</ref> The Kerala state football team had won the [[Santhosh Trophy]] five times; in 1973, 1992, 1993, 2001 and 2004. They were also the runner-ups for eight times.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.the-aiff.com/pages/tournament/tournament-history.php?tournamentdetail=22 | title=Past Winners | publisher=All India Football Federation | accessdate=9 June 2012}}</ref>
Among the prominent athletes hailing from the state, [[P. T. Usha]], [[Shiny Wilson]] and [[M.D. Valsamma]] are both [[Padma Shri]] as well as [[Arjuna Award]] winners while [[K. M. Beenamol]] and [[Anju Bobby George]] are [[Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna]] as well as [[Arjuna Award]] winners. [[T. C. Yohannan]], [[Suresh Babu]], [[Sinimol Paulose]], Angel Mary Joseph, [[Mercy Kuttan]], K. Saramma, [[Rosa Kutty|K. C. Rosakutty]] and Padmini Selvan are the other Arjuna Award winners from Kerala.<ref name="PRD-sports"/><ref>{{cite web | url=http://keralaathletics.org/history.html | title=Kerala State Athletics Association: History | publisher=Kerala State Athletics Association | accessdate=12 June 2012}}</ref> Volleyball is another popular sport<ref>{{cite book | title=The Rough Guide to South India |author=David Abram, Nick Edwards |url= |publisher=Rough Guides |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-84353-103-6 |page=64 |accessdate=}}</ref> and is often played on makeshift courts on sandy beaches along the coast. [[Jimmy George]] was a notable Indian volleyball player, rated in his prime as among the world's ten best players.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jimmy George |work=Sports Portal |publisher=Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports |accessdate=11 November 2007 |url=http://sportal.nic.in/legenddetails.asp?sno=667&moduleid=&maincatid=59&subid=0&comid=55 |archiveurl=http://0-web.archive.org.innopac.up.ac.za/web/20080514040141/http://sportal.nic.in/legenddetails.asp?sno=667&moduleid=&maincatid=59&subid=0&comid=55 |archivedate=14 May 2008 }}</ref> Other popular sports include badminton, basketball and [[kabaddi]].<ref name="Reddy2005">{{cite book|author=P.A. Reddy|title=Sports Promotion In India|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=T37m8eRAEX0C&pg=PA119|accessdate=17 November 2012|date=1 January 2005|publisher=Discovery Publishing House|isbn=978-81-7141-927-2|pages=31–42}}</ref>
==Tourism==
{{Main|Tourism in Kerala}}
[[File:Munnar hillstation kerala.jpg|thumb|right|[[Munnar]], a [[hill station]] and a [[Hamlet (place)|hamlet]] in Kerala]]
Its [[culture of Kerala|culture and traditions]], coupled with its varied [[demographics of Kerala|demographics]], have made Kerala one of the most popular tourist destinations in India. [[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]]'s [[National Geographic Traveler|Traveller]] magazine names Kerala as one of the "ten paradises of the world"<ref name="Kerala Tourism">{{cite web|title=Kerala Tourism: Paradises in the world |url=http://www.hindu.com/edu/2004/05/11/stories/2004051100040100.htm|publisher=[[The Hindu]]|accessdate=20 February 2012}}</ref> and "50 must see destinations of a lifetime".<ref name="Kerala India">{{cite web|title=Kerala – The Gateway of India|url=http://forbesindia.com/printcontent/26162|publisher=[[Forbes]]|accessdate=3 January 2012}}</ref> [[Travel and Leisure]] names Kerala as "One of the 100 great trips for the 21st century".<ref name="Kerala Tourism"/><ref>{{Cite news |author= |title=Kerala : National Geographic Traveler selects Kerala as 'one of the 50 must-see destinations of a lifetime' |publisher=Travel Portal of India|date=27 January 2009 |accessdate=11 June 2011 |url=http://www.travelportalofindia.com/2009/07/kerala-national-geographic-traveler-selects-kerala-as-one-of-the-50-must-see-destinations-of-a-lifetime/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |author= |title=Kerala – God's Own Country|publisher=Kerala Homestays|date=27 January 2009 |accessdate=11 June 2011 |url=http://www.keralahomestaysonline.com/main/kerala.asp}}</ref> In 2012,it overtook [[Taj Mahal]] to be the number one travel destination in Google's search trends for India.<ref>{{Cite news |author= |title=Kerala beats Taj in Google Search Trends for 2012|publisher=Indian Express|date=28 December 2012 |accessdate=11 January 2012 |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/tourism-kerala-beats-taj-in-google-search-trends-for-2012/1051412}}</ref> Kerala's beaches, backwaters, mountain ranges and wildlife sanctuaries are the major attractions for both domestic and international tourists. The city of [[Kochi]] ranks first in the total number of international and domestic tourists in Kerala.<ref>http://www.keralatourism.org/destination-wise-foreign-2010.pdf</ref><ref name="Tourism Statistics">{{cite web|publisher=Government of Kerala, Tourism Department|url=http://www.keralatourism.org/tourismstatistics/Tourist-Statistics2008.pdf|title=Tourist statistics – 2008|accessdate=22 October 2010}}</ref> Varkala beach in Thiruvananthapuram is rated as 9th best bargain adventures 2013 in the world by The Guardian, UK. It also referred Varkala as new Goa <ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/2013/jan/04/30-best-bargain-adventure-holidays-2013 30 of the best bargain adventures in 2013 | Travel | The Guardian<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Until the early 1980s, Kerala was a relatively unknown destination to other states of the country.<ref name="HinduTourism">{{Cite news |author=Santhanam K |title=An ideal getaway |work=The Hindu Magazine |publisher=The Hindu |date=27 January 2002 |accessdate=11 November 2007 |url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mag/2002/01/27/stories/2002012700400800.htm |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> In 1986 the government of Kerala declared tourism as an industry and it was the first state in India to do so.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Tourism beckons |publisher=The Hindu |date=11 May 2004 |accessdate=9 August 2006 |url=http://www.hindu.com/edu/2004/05/11/stories/2004051100040100.htm |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> Marketing campaigns launched by the [[Kerala Tourism Development Corporation]], the government agency that oversees tourism prospects of the state, resulted in the growth of the tourism industry.<ref name="Tourism">{{cite book |title=Tourism Marketing |author=Dasgupta Devashish |publisher=Pearson Education India |year=2011 |isbn=978-81-317-3182-6 |page=203 |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=oXWAEjcG-FsC |accessdate= }}</ref> Many advertisements branded Kerala with a catchy tagline ''[[God's Own Country|Kerala, God's Own Country]]''.<ref name="Tourism"/> Today, Kerala tourism is a global brand and regarded as one of the destinations with highest recall.<ref name="Tourism"/> In 2006, Kerala attracted 8.5 million tourist arrivals, an increase of 23.68% over the previous year, making the state one of the fastest-growing destinations in the world.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tourist Statistics — 2006 |work=Department of Tourism |publisher=Government of Kerala |year=2006 |accessdate=11 November 2007 |url=http://www.keralatourism.org/php/media/data/tourismstatistics/TS2006.pdf |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080626195845/http://www.keralatourism.org/php/media/data/tourismstatistics/TS2006.pdf |archivedate=26 June 2008|format=PDF}}</ref> In 2011, tourist inflow to Kerala crossed the 10-million mark.<ref name="bizstd">{{cite web |title=Tourist inflow to Kerala crosses 10 million mark |publisher=Business-Standard |url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/tourist-inflow-to-kerala-crosses-10-million-mark/474524/ |accessdate=}}</ref>
[[File:Sunset at Varkala Beach Kerala India.jpg|thumb|left|Varkala beach]]
Ayurvedic tourism became very popular since the 1990s, and private agencies like ''Kottakkal Arya Vydyasala'' played a notable role in tandem with the initiatives of Tourism Department.<ref name="HinduTourism"/> Kerala is known for its [[ecotourism]] initiatives and in this segment it promotes mountaineering, trekking and bird-watching programmes in the [[Western Ghats]] as the major products.<ref name="Devrep47">{{Cite book |author=Planning Commission, India |title=Kerala Development Report |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC |publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2007 |isbn=978-81-7188-594-7 |page=47 |accessdate=}}</ref> As of 2005, the state's tourism industry was a major contributor to the [[economy of Kerala|state's economy]], which is currently growing at a rate of 13.31%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tourist Statistics — 2005 (Provisional) |work=Department of Tourism |publisher=Government of Kerala |year=2005 |accessdate=11 November 2007 |url=http://www.keralatourism.org/php/media/data/tourismstatistics/TOURISTSTATISTICS2005.pdf |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080626195846/http://www.keralatourism.org/php/media/data/tourismstatistics/TOURISTSTATISTICS2005.pdf |archivedate=26 June 2008|format=PDF}}</ref> The revenue from tourism increased fivefold between 2001 and 2011 and crossed the {{INR}}190 billion mark in 2011. Moreover, the industry provides employment opportunity to approximately 1.2 million people.<ref name="bizstd"/>
[[File:Koravankorvatti.jpg|thumb|right|The stone sculpture of Kuruvan and Kuruvati at Ramakkalmedu in Kerala]]
The most popular tourist attractions in the state are beaches, backwaters and hill stations. Major beaches are at [[Kovalam]], [[Varkala]], [[Kappad]], [[Muzhappilangad]] and [[Bekal]]. Popular hill stations are at [[Munnar]], [[Wayanad]], [[Wagamon]], [[Peermade]], [[Nelliampathi]] and [[Ponmudi]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Tapan K Panda |title=Tourism Marketing |publisher=ICFAI Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-81-314-0469-0 |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=4A0j6ZlJQfkC |pages=173–177 |accessdate= }}</ref> Kerala's ecotourism destinations include 12 wildlife sanctuaries and two national parks: [[Periyar Tiger Reserve]], [[Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Thattekad Bird Sanctuary]], [[Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Muthanga|Muthanga Wildlife Sanctuary]], and [[Eravikulam National Park]] are the most popular among them.<ref>{{cite book |author=M.R. Biju |title=Sustainable Dimensions Of Tourism Management |publisher=Mittal Publications |year=2006 |isbn=978-81-8324-129-8 |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=AkAdvTbg0dEC |pages=151–165 |accessdate= }}</ref> The "[[Kerala Backwaters|backwaters]]" are an extensive network of interlocking rivers (41 west-flowing rivers), lakes, and canals that center around [[Alleppey]], [[Kumarakom]], [[Kollam]] and [[Punnamada]] (where the annual Nehru Trophy Boat Race is held in August). [[Padmanabhapuram Palace]] and the [[Mattancherry Palace]] are two notable heritage sites. According to a survey conducted among foreign tourists, ''Elephants, fireworks display and huge crowd'' are the major attractions of Thrissur Pooram. [[Nemmara Vela]] is also famous for the fireworks.<ref>{{Cite news |title=The stars of Pooram show are jumbos |publisher=The Hindu |date=26 May 2006 |accessdate=11 November 2007 |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/26/stories/2006052610410500.htm |location=Chennai, India}}</ref>
==See also==
{{portal|India|Kerala}}
* [[List of tallest buildings in Kerala]]
* [[Bibliography of India]]
* [[List of people from Kerala|List of notable people from Kerala]]
* [[Outline of India]]
* [[Outline of Kerala]]
==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}} <!-- 3 columns only; more than 3 columns is hard to read; Using scroll bar is depreciated due to difficulty in printing the document -->
==External links==
{{Sister project links|Kerala}}
* {{Wikivoyage-inline|Kerala}}
* {{dmoz|Regional/Asia/India/Kerala|Kerala}}
* [http://www.kerala.gov.in/ Official entry portal] of the Government of Kerala
* [http://www.keralatourism.org/ Department of Tourism, Government of Kerala]
* [http://www.censuskerala.org/ Directorate of Census Operations] of Kerala
{{Geographic location|Centre = Kerala
|North= [[Karnataka]]
|Northeast =
|East = [[Tamil Nadu]]
|Southeast =
|South= Indian Ocean
|Southwest =
|West = [[Lakshadweep Sea]]
|Northwest = [[Mahé, India|Mahé]]
}}
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