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== Antik Roman yol agi sistemleri ==
=== Yol tipleri ===
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Roman roads vary from simple [[corduroy road]]s to paved roads using deep roadbeds of tamped rubble as an underlying layer to ensure that they kept dry, as the water would flow out from between the stones and fragments of rubble, instead of becoming mud in clay soils.
The laws of the [[Twelve Tables]], dated to approximately 450 BC, specify that a road shall be 2.45 m (8 ft) wide where straight and 4.90 m (16 ft) where curved. The tables command Romans to build roads and give wayfarers the right to pass over private land where the road is in disrepair. Building roads that would not need frequent repair therefore became an ideological objective.
Roman law defined the right to use a road as a ''servitus'', or claim. The ''jus eundi'' ("right of going") established a claim to use an ''iter'', or footpath, across private land; the ''ius agendi'' ("right of driving"), an ''actus'', or carriage track. A ''via'' combined both types of ''servitutes'', provided it was of the proper width, which was determined by an ''arbiter''. The default width was the ''latitudo legitima'' of 2.4 m (8 ft). In these rather dry laws we can see the prevalence of the public domain over the private, which characterized the republic.
[[Dosya:2006 0814Histria Road Market20060416.jpg|thumb|sol|Istirya'da bir Rantik Roma yolu.<ref>http://archweb.cimec.ro/Arheologie/web-histria/4imagini/imagini_eng.htm</ref>]]
With the conquest of Italy prepared ''viae'' were extended from Rome and its vicinity to outlying municipalities, sometimes overlying earlier roads. Building ''viae'' was a military responsibility and thus came under the jurisdiction of a consul. The process had a military name, ''viam munire'', as though the via were a fortification. Municipalities, however, were responsible for their own roads, which the Romans called ''viae vicinales''.
A ''via'' connected two cities. Some links in the network were as long as 90 kilometers (55 miles). The builders always aimed at a regulation width, but actual widths have been measured at between 1.1 m and more than 7 m.
The builders aimed at directional straightness. Many long sections are ruler-straight, but it should not be thought that all of them were. The Roman emphasis on constructing straight roads often resulted in steep grades relatively impractical for most economic traffic; over the years the Romans themselves realized this and built longer, but more manageable, alternatives to existing roads.
''Viae'' were generally centrally placed in the countryside. Features off the ''via'' were connected to the ''via'' by ''viae rusticae'', or secondary roads. Either main or secondary roads might be paved, or they might be left unpaved, with a gravel surface, as they were in North Africa. These prepared but unpaved roads were ''viae glareae'' or ''sternendae'' ("to be strewn"). Beyond the secondary roads were the ''viae terrenae'', "dirt roads". A road map of the empire reveals that it was laced fairly completely with a network of prepared ''viae''. Beyond the borders are no roads; however, one might presume that footpaths and dirt roads allowed some transport.
[[Dosya:Campidoglio - il miliarium.JPG|thumb|sol|Mesafe taşı.]]
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=== Yollarda seyahat ===
==== kilometreMesafe taşıtaşları ====
[[Dosya:Milliarum of Aiton, modern copy erected in Turda, Romania in 1993.jpg|thumb|250px|Potaissa Napoca Miliarium.]]
[[Dosya:RomaForoRomanoMiliariumAureum01.JPG|thumb|250px|Roma Forum'da bulunan ''miliarium aureum'' adi verilen antik Roma yollarinin baslangic tasi.]]
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Before 250 BC, the [[via Appia]], and after 124 BC, most viae, were divided into numbered miles by [[milestone]]s. The modern word mile derives in fact from the Latin ''milia passuum'', "one thousand [[pace (length)|pace]]s", which amounted to about 1,500 m. A milestone, or ''miliarium'', was a circular column on a solid rectangular base, set for more than 60 cm into the ground, standing 1.50 m, 50 cm in diameter, weighing more than 2 tons. At the base was inscribed the number of the mile relative to the road it was on. In a panel at eye-height was the distance to the [[Roman Forum]] and various other information about the officials who made or repaired the road and when. These miliaria are valuable historical documents now. Their inscriptions are collected in the volume XVII of the ''[[Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum]]''.
[[Dosya:Roman milestone rabagao portugal.jpg|thumb|sol|150px|A provincial roman milestone, at Alto Rabagao, Portugal (Road from Bracara Augusta to Asturias)]]The Romans had a preference for standardization whenever they could, so [[Augustus]], after becoming permanent commissioner of roads in 20 BC, set up the ''[[miliarium aureum]]'' (''golden [[milestone]]'') near the [[temple of Saturn]]. All roads were considered to begin from this gilded bronze monument. On it were listed all the major cities in the empire and distances to them. [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]] called it the ''[[umbilicus Romae]]'' (''navel of Rome''), and built a similar — although more complex — monument in [[Constantinople]], the [[Milion]].
Milestones permitted distances and locations to be known and recorded exactly. It was not long before historians began to refer to the milestone at which an event occurred.
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==== Konaklama ====
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{{Seealso|Mansio}}
A [[Roman legion|legion]] on the march did not need a way station, as it brought its own baggage train (''impedimenta'') and constructed its own camp (''[[castra]]'') every evening at the side of the road. Other officials or people on official business, however, had no legion at their service, and so the government maintained way stations, or [[mansio]]nes ("staying places"), for their use. [[Passports]] were required for identification.
Horse drawn carts could travel up to 40-50 kilometers (25-30 miles) per day (Travel in the Ancient World, Lionel Casson, p. 189), pedestrians 20-25 kilometers, and so each mansio was about 25 to 30 km (15 miles to 18 miles) from the next one. There the official traveller found a complete [[villa]] dedicated to his refreshment. Often a permanent military camp or a town grew up around the mansio.
Non-official travellers needed refreshment too, and at the same locations along the road. A private system of 'inns' or cauponae were placed near the mansiones. They performed the same functions but were somewhat disreputable, as they were frequented by thieves and prostitutes. Graffiti decorate the walls of the few whose ruins have been found.
Genteel travellers needed something better than cauponae. In the early days of the viae, when little unofficial existed, houses placed near the road were required by law to offer hospitality on demand. Frequented houses no doubt became the first tabernae, which were hostels, rather than the "taverns" we know today. As Rome grew, so did its tabernae, becoming more luxurious and acquiring good or bad reputations as the case may be. One of the best hotels was the Tabernae Caediciae at [[Sinuessa]] on the [[Via Appia]]. It had a large storage room containing barrels of wine, cheese and ham. Many cities of today grew up around a taberna complex, such as [[Rheinzabern]] in the Rhineland, and [[Saverne]] in [[Alsace]].
A third system of way stations serviced vehicles and animals: the mutationes ("changing stations"). They were located every 12-18 miles. In these complexes, the driver could purchase the services of wheelwrights, cartwrights, and equarii medici, or veterinarians. Using these stations in chariot relays, the emperor [[Tiberius]] hastened 800 kilometers (500 miles) in 24 hours to join his brother, [[Nero Claudius Drusus|Drusus Germanicus]], who was dying of gangrene as a result of a fall from a horse.
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==== Tasitlar ====
[[Dosya:Römischer Reisewagen.JPG|thumb|250px|Romalı dört tekerlekli kapali araba]]
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Roman law and tradition forbade the use of vehicles in urban areas, except in certain cases. Married women and government officials on business could ride. The [[Lex Iulia Municipalis]] restricted commercial carts to night-time access to the city within the walls and within a mile outside the walls. Outside the cities, Romans were avid riders and rode on or drove quite a number of vehicle types, some of which are mentioned here. Carts droven by oxen were used.
For purposes of description, Roman vehicles can be divided into the car, the coach and the cart. Cars were used to transport one or two individuals, coaches were used to transport parties, and carts to transport cargo.
Of the cars, the most popular was the ''carrus'' ("car"), a standard chariot form descending to the Romans from a greater antiquity. The top was open, the front closed. One survives in the Vatican. It carried a driver and a passenger. A carrus of two horses was a ''biga''; of three horses, a ''triga''; and of four horses a ''quadriga''. The tires were of iron. When not in use, its wheels were removed for easier storage.
A more luxurious version, the ''carpentum'', transported women and officials. It had an arched overhead covering of cloth and was drawn by mules. A lighter version, the ''cisium'', equivalent to a [[gig (carriage)|gig]], was open above and in front and had a seat. Drawn by one or two mules or horses, it was used for cab work, the cab drivers being called ''cisiani''. The builder was a ''cisarius''.
Of the coaches, the main stay was the raeda or reda, which had 4 wheels. The high sides formed a sort of box in which seats were placed, with a notch on each side for entry. It carried several people with baggage up to the legal limit of 1000 pounds. It was drawn by teams of oxen, horses or mules. A cloth top could be put on for weather, in which case it resembled a covered wagon.
The raeda was probably the main vehicle for travel on the roads. ''Raedae meritoriae'' were hired coaches. The ''fiscalis raeda'' was a government coach. The driver and the builder were both named a ''raedarius''.
Of the carts, the main one was the ''plaustrum'' or ''plostrum''. This was simply a platform of boards attached to wheels and a cross-tree. The wheels, or ''tympana'', were solid and were several inches thick. The sides could be built up with boards or rails. A large wicker basket was sometimes placed on it. A two-wheel version existed along with the normal 4-wheel type called the ''plaustrum maius''.
The military used a standard wagon. Their transportation service was the ''cursus clabularis'', after the standard wagon, called a ''carrus clabularius'', ''clabularis'', ''clavularis'', or ''clabulare''. It transported the ''impedimenta'', or baggage of a military column.
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==== Ulak sistemi ====
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{{Unreferenced|date=December 2008}}
Two postal services were available under the empire, one public and one private.
The [[Cursus publicus]], founded by [[Augustus]], carried the mail of officials by relay throughout the Roman road system. The vehicle for carrying mail was a ''cisium'' with a box, but for special delivery, a horse and rider was faster. A relay of horses could carry a letter at 800 km (500 miles) of distance in 24 hours. The postman wore a characteristic leather hat, the ''petanus''. The postal service was a somewhat dangerous occupation, as postmen were a target for bandits and enemies of Rome.
Private mail of the well-to-do was carried by ''tabellarii'', an organization of slaves available for a price.
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=== Guzergah ===
[[Dosya:Part of Tabula Peutingeriana.jpg|thumb|sol|'''Tabula Peutingeriana''' (merksi Güney İtalya.]]
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The Romans and ancient travelers in general did not use maps. They may have existed as specialty items in some of the libraries, but they were hard to copy and were not in general use. On the Roman road system, however, the traveller needed some idea of where he was going, how to get there, and how long it would take. The [[itinerarium]] filled this need. In origin it was simply a list of cities along a road. It was only a short step from lists to a master list. To sort out the lists, the Romans drew diagrams of parallel lines showing the branches of the roads. Parts of these were copied and sold on the streets. The very best featured symbols for cities, way stations, water courses, and so on. They cannot be considered maps, as they did not represent landforms, but they served a similar purpose much in the way [[schematic diagram]]s do for users of modern [[Rapid transit|subway]] systems (e.g. the [[Tube map]] for users of the [[London Underground]]).
The Roman government from time to time undertook to produce a master itinerary of all Roman roads. [[Julius Caesar]] ve [[Mark Antony]] commissioned the first known such effort in 44 BC. Zenodoxus, Theodotus and Polyclitus, three Greek geographers, were hired to survey the system and compile a master itinerary. This task required over 25 years. The result was a stone engraved master itinerarium set up near the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]], from which travelers and itinerary sellers could make copies.
Archaeology has turned up some itinerary material in unexpected places. The Cups of Cadiz, four silver cups found by workmen excavating a foundation at Bracciano in 1852, are engraved with the names and distances of stations between Cadiz and Rome.
The term itinerary changed meaning over the centuries. In the [[Itinerarium Burdigalense]] (Bordeaux Pilgrim, 333 AD), the itinerary is a description of what route to take to the Holy Land. The [[Itinerarium Alexandri]] is a list of the conquests of [[Alexander the Great]]. Today it means either a travel journal or a list of recommended stops.The Romans put stones along the road to let travellers know how far to the next city or inn is.
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== Yol yapimi ==
=== Metot ===
[[Dosya:Romeroadbuild.svg|right]]
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The Romans are believed to have learned the art of road construction from the [[Etruscans]]. No doubt the art grew as it went along and also incorporated good ideas from other cultures.
After the [[civil engineer]] looked over the site of the proposed road and determined roughly where it should go, the [[agrimensor]]es went to work surveying the road bed. They used two main devices, the rod and a device called a ''[[Groma surveying|groma]]'', which helped them obtain right angles. The [[gromatici]], the Roman equivalent of rod men, placed rods and put down a line called the rigor. As they did not possess anything like a [[Theodolite|transit]], an civil engineering surveyor tried to achieve straightness by looking along the rods and commanding the gromatici to move them as required. Using the gromae they then laid out a grid on the plan of the road.
The libratores began their work. Using ploughs and legionaries with spades, they excavated the road bed down to bed rock or at least to the firmest ground they could find. The excavation was called the ''fossa'', "ditch". The depth varied according to terrain.
[[Dosya:High Street and Small Water from Harter Fell.jpg|sol|thumb|High Street, a [[fell]] in the [[England|English]] [[Lake District]], named after the Roman road which runs over the [[Summit (topography)|summit]], which is the highest Roman road in Britain]]
The road was constructed by filling the ditch.This was done by layering rock over other stones. The method varied according to geographic locality, materials available and terrain, but the plan, or ideal at which the architect aimed was always the same. The roadbed was layered.
Into the fossa was dumped large amounts of rubble, gravel and stone, whatever fill was available. Sometimes a layer of sand was put down, if it could be found. When it came to within several dozen centimeters of the surface it was covered with gravel and tamped down, a process called pavire, or pavimentare. The flat surface was then the pavimentum. It could be used as the road, or additional layers could be constructed. A statumen or "foundation" of flat stones set in cement might support the additional layers.
The final steps utilized [[concrete]], which the Romans had exclusively rediscovered. They seem to have mixed the mortar and the stones in the fossa. First a several-inch layer of coarse concrete, the rudus, then a several-inch layer of fine concrete, the nucleus, went onto the pavement or statumen. Into or onto the nucleus went a course of polygonal or square paving stones, such as you see in the picture, called the summa crusta. The crusta was crowned for drainage.
It is unclear that any standard terminology was used; the words for the different elements perhaps varied from region to region. Today the concrete has worn from the spaces around the stones, giving the impression of a very bumpy road, but the original surface was no doubt much closer to being flat. These remarkable roads are resistant to rain, freezing and flooding. They needed little repair.
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=== Arizali arazilerin asilmasi ===
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The Roman road (from [[Cazane]] near [[Iron Gates]]) was half carved into the rock, about 1.5-1.75 m, the rest of the road, above the [[Danube]], was made from wooden structure, projecting out of the cliff. this road functioned as a towpath, making the Danube navigable. Roman architects preferred to engineer solutions to obstacles rather than circumvent them.
[[Dosya:Engineering corps traian s column river crossing.jpg|thumb|sol|River Crossing.]]
River crossings were achieved by bridges, or pontes. Single slabs went over rills. A bridge could be of wood, stone, or both. Wooden bridges were constructed on pilings sunk into the river, or on stone piers. Larger or more permanent bridges required arches. Roman bridges were so well constructed that many are in use today.
[[Dosya:TabulaTraiana.jpg|thumb|Tabula Traiana over Roman road.|250px]]
Causeways were built over marshy ground. The road was first marked out with pilings. Between them were sunk large quantities of stone so as to raise the causeway to more than 1.5 m above the marsh. In the provinces, the Romans often did not bother with a stone causeway, but used log roads (pontes longi).
Outcroppings of stone, ravines, or hilly or mountainous terrain called for cuttings and tunnels. Roman roads generally went straight up and down hills, rather than in a serpentine pattern. Grades of 10%-12% are known in ordinary terrain, 15%-20% in mountainous country.
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=== Finansman ===
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Financing road building was a Roman government responsibility. Maintenance, however, was generally left to the province. The officials tasked with fund raising were the ''curatores viarum'', similar to a [[:wiktionary:curator|curator]]. They had a number of methods available to them. Private citizens with an interest in the road could contribute to its repair. High officials might distribute [[Evergetism|largesse]] to be used for roads. Censors, who were in charge of public morals and public works, were expected to fund repairs ''sua pecunia'' (with their own money). Beyond those means, taxes were required.
The beauty and grandeur of the roads might tempt us to believe that any Roman citizen could use them for free, but this was not the case. Tolls abounded, especially at bridges. Often they were collected at the city gate. Freight was made heavier still by import and export taxes. These were only the charges for using the roads. Costs of services on the journey went up from there.
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== Antik Roma yollari listesi ==
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[[Dosya:Roman Empire 125.svg|thumb|sağ|400px|The Roman empire in the time of [[Hadrian]] (ruled 117-38 AD), showing the network of main '''Roman roads''']]
There are many examples of roads that still follow the route of Roman roads.
===[[Arnavutluk]] / [[Makedonya Cumhuriyeti]] / [[Yunanistan]] / [[Türkiye]]===
* [[Via Egnatia]] ([[146 BC]]) connecting [[Durrës|Dyrrhachium]] (on [[Adriatic Sea]]) to [[Byzantium]] via [[Thessaloniki]]
===[[Avusturya]] / [[Sırbistan]] / [[Bulgaristan]] / [[Türkiye]]===
* [[Via Militaris]] (Via Diagonalis, Via Singidunum), connecting [[Middle Europe]] ve [[Byzantium]]
===[[Romanya]] / [[Bulgaristan]]===
* [[Via Pontica]]
===[[France]]===
In France, a Roman road is called ''voie romaine'' in vernacular language.
* [[Via Agrippa]]
* [[Via Aquitania]], from [[Narbonne]], where it connected to the Via Domitia, to the [[Atlantic Ocean]] across [[Toulouse]] ve [[Bordeaux]]
* [[Via Domitia]] ([[118 BC]]), from [[Nimes]] to the [[Pyrenees]], where it joins to the [[Via Augusta]] at the [[Col de Panissars]]
* ''[[Voie romaine (Nord)|Voie romaine]]'', extending from Dunkirk to Cassel in Nord Département
===[[İtalya]]===
[[Dosya:Map of Roman roads in Italy.png|thumb|300px|Map of Roman roads in Italy]]
==== Major roads ====
* [[Via Aemilia]], from [[Rimini|Ariminum]] to [[Piacenza|Placentia]]
* [[Via Appia]], the Appian way ([[312 BC]]), from [[Rome]] to [[Puglia|Apulia]]
* [[Via Aurelia]] ([[241 BC]]), from Rome to [[France]]
* [[Via Cassia]], from Rome to [[Tuscany]]
* [[Via Flaminia]] ([[220 BC]]), from Rome to [[Rimini (Ariminum)]]
* [[Via Salaria]], from Rome to the [[Adriatic Sea]] (in the [[Marches]])
==== Others ====
* [[Via Aemilia Scaura]] ([[109 BC]])
* [[Via Aquillia]], branches off the Appia at [[Capua]] to the sea at [[Vibo]]
* [[Via Amerina]], from Rome to [[Ameria]] ve [[Perusia]]
* [[Via Canalis]], from Udine, Gemona and Val Canale to Villach in Carinthia and then over Alps to Salzburg or Vienna
* [[Via Claudia Julia Augusta]] ([[13 BC]])
* [[Via Clodia]], from Rome to [[Tuscany]] forming a system with the Cassia
* [[Via Domiziana|Via Domitiana]], coast road from Naples to Formia
* [[Via Flavia]], from [[Trieste (Tergeste)]] to [[Istria]] by crossing the [[Rižana]], the [[Dragonja]] and, at Ponte Porton, the biggest Istrian river the [[Mirna]], it reached the [[Limski Channel (Canale Leme)]], [[Dvigrad]], [[Bale (Valle)]], [[Vodnjan (Dignano)]] ve [[Pula (Pola)]], then turning towards [[Visače (Nesactium)]], reaching the [[Raša (Arsia) River]], crossing it, and continuing as a local road through [[Labin (Albona)]] ve [[Plomin (Fianona)]]as far as [[Kastav (Castua)]], where it joined at an angle with the Via Gemina
* [[Via Gemina]], from Aquileia and Trieste through the [[Karst]] to [[Materija]], [[Obrov]], [[Lipa]] ve [[Klana]], from where, near [[Rijeka]], descending towards [[Trsat]] to continue along the Dalmatian coast
* [[Via Julia Augusta]] ([[8 BC]]), exits [[Aquileia]]
* [[Via Labicana]], southeast from Rome, forming a system with the Praenestina
* [[Via Ostiense|Via Ostiensis]], from Rome to [[Ostia Antica (archaeological site)|Ostia]]
* [[Via Postumia]] ([[148]]), from [[Verona]] across the [[Apennine Mountains|Apennines]] to [[Genoa]]
* [[Via Popilia]] ([[132 BC]]), two distinct roads, one from [[Capua]] to [[Rhegium]] and the other from [[Ariminum]] through the later [[Veneto]] region
* [[Via Praenestina]], from Rome to [[Praeneste]]
* [[Via Schlavonia]], from Aquileia across northern Istria to Senj and into Dalmatia
* [[Via Severiana]], [[Terracina]] to [[Ostia Antica (archaeological site)|Ostia]]
* [[Via Tiburtina]], from Rome to [[Aternum]]
* [[Via Traiana Nova (Italy)]], from Lake [[Bolsena]] to the [[Via Cassia]]. Known by archaeology only
===[[Middle East]]===
* [[Petra Roman Road]] First Century [[Petra]], [[Ürdün]]
=== Trans-Alpine roads ===
These roads connected modern Italy and [[Almanya]]
*[[Via Claudia Augusta]] ([[47]]) from [[Altinum]] (now [[Quarto d'Altino]]) to [[Augsburg]] via the [[Ötztal Alps|Reschen Pass]]
*[[Via Mala]] from [[Milan]] to [[Lindau]] via the [[San Bernardino Pass]]
*[[Via Decia]]
=== Trans-Pyrenean roads ===
Connecting [[Hispania]] ve [[Gallia]]:
*[[Ab Asturica Burdigalam]]
===[[Romanya]]===
[[Dosya:BALKANS ROMAN ROADS .jpg|thumb|sağ|200px|Roman roads along the [[Danube]]]]
*[[Trajan's bridge]] ve [[Iron Gates]] road.
* Via Traiana — Porolissum Napoca Potaissa Apulum road.
* Via Pontica - [[Troesmis]] [[Piroboridava]] [[Caput]] [[Stenarum]] [[Apulum]] [[Partiscum]] [[Lugio]]
===[[Spain]]===
* [[Iter ab Emerita Asturicam]], from [[Sevilla]] to [[Gijón]]. Later known as ''[[Via de la Plata|Vía de la Plata]]'' (''plata'' means "silver" in Spanish, but in this case it is a false cognate of an Arabic word ''balata''), part of the fan of the [[Way of Saint James]]. Now it is the A-66 [[freeway]].
* [[Via Augusta]], from [[Cádiz]] to the [[Pyrénées]], where it joins to the [[Via Domitia]] at the [[Coll de Panissars]], near [[La Jonquera]]. It passes through [[Valencia (city in Spain)|Valencia]], [[Tarragona]] (anciently Tarraco), and [[Barcelona]].
* [[Camiño de Oro]], ending in Ourense, capital of the Province of Ourense, passing near the village of Reboledo.
===[[United Kingdom]]===
{{mainarticle|Roman roads in Britain}}
*[[Akeman Street]]
*[[Dere Street]]
*[[Ermine Street]]
*[[Fen Causeway]]
*[[Fosse Way]]
*[[King Street (Roman road)|King Street]]
*[[London-West of England Roman Roads]]
*[[Peddars Way]]
*[[Stane Street]]
*[[Stanegate]]
*[[Via Devana]]
*[[Watling Street]]
===[[Roman province of Africa|Africa]] ===
{{mainarticle|Roman roads in Africa}}
*Main road: from [[Sala Colonia]] to [[Carthage]] to [[Alexandria]].
*In [[Mısır]]: [[Via Hadriana]]
*In [[Mauretania Tingitana]] from [[Tingis]] southward (see: [[Roman roads in Morocco]])
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== Ayrıca bakınız ==
| 