Polibios: Revizyonlar arasındaki fark
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== Hayatı==
=== Çocukluk ve gençliği===
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Polybius was born around 200 BC in [[Megalopolis, Greece|Megalopolis]], [[Arcadia]], when it was an active member of the [[Achaean League]]. His father, [[Lycortas]], was a prominent, land-owning politician and member of the governing class who became ''[[strategos]]'' (commanding general) of the [[Achaean League]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0144:book=39:chapter=35&highlight=lycortas|title=Titus Livius (Livy), The History of Rome, Book 39, chapter 35|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu|access-date=2016-11-02}}</ref> Consequently, Polybius was able to observe first hand the political and military affairs of Megalopolis. He developed an interest in horse riding and hunting, diversions that later commended him to his Roman captors. In 182 BC, he was given quite an honor when he was chosen to carry the funeral urn of [[Philopoemen]], one of the most eminent Achaean politicians of his generation. In either 169 BC or 170 BC, Polybius was elected [[hipparchus (cavalry officer)]], an event which often presaged election to the annual ''[[strategia]]'' (chief generalship). His early political career was devoted largely towards maintaining the independence of Megalopolis.{{citation needed|date=May 2017}}
Polybius’ father, Lycortas, was a prominent advocate of neutrality during the Roman war against [[Perseus of Macedonia|Perseus]] of [[Macedon]]. Lycortas attracted the suspicion of the Romans, and Polybius subsequently was one of the 1,000 [[Achaea (ancient region)|Achaean]] nobles who were transported to Rome as hostages in 167 BC, and was detained there for 17 years. In Rome, by virtue of his high culture, Polybius was admitted to the most distinguished houses, in particular to that of [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus]], the conqueror in the [[Third Macedonian War]], who entrusted Polybius with the education of his sons, Fabius and [[Scipio Aemilianus Africanus|Scipio Aemilianus]] (who had been adopted by the eldest son of [[Scipio Africanus]]). Polybius remained on cordial terms with his former pupil Scipio Aemilianus and was among the members of the [[Scipionic Circle]]. Polybius remained a counselor to Scipio when he defeated the [[Carthaginians]] in the [[Third Punic War]]. When the Achaean hostages were released in 150 BC, Polybius was granted leave to return home, but the next year he went on campaign with Scipio Aemilianus to [[Africa]], and was present at the [[Battle of Carthage (c. 149 BC)|Sack of Carthage]] in 146, which he later described. Following the destruction of Carthage, Polybius likely journeyed along the Atlantic coast of Africa, as well as Spain.
After the destruction of [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]] in the same year, Polybius returned to Greece, making use of his Roman connections to lighten the conditions there. Polybius was charged with the difficult task of organizing the new form of government in the Greek cities, and in this office he gained great recognition.
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=== Roma'da===
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In the succeeding years, Polybius resided in Rome, completing his historical work while occasionally undertaking long journeys through the Mediterranean countries in the furtherance of his history, in particular with the aim of obtaining firsthand knowledge of historical sites. He apparently interviewed veterans to clarify details of the events he was recording and was similarly given access to archival material. Little is known of Polybius' later life; he most likely accompanied Scipio to Spain, acting as his military advisor during the Numantine War. He later wrote about this war in a lost monograph.
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=== Son dönemleri ve ölümü==
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Polybius probably returned to Greece later in his life, as evidenced by the many existent inscriptions and statues of him there. The last event mentioned in his Histories seems to be the construction of the Via Domitia in southern France in 118 BC, which suggests the writings of Pseudo-Lucian may have some grounding in fact when they state,
"[Polybius] fell from his horse while riding up from the country, fell ill as a result and died at the age of eighty-two".
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== Eserleri==
===Kayıp eserleri===
Polibios'un yazdığı eserlerin çoğunluğu yüzyıllar gecçtikçe kaybolup günümüze kadar gelmemişlerdir. İlk eserlerinden birinin MÖ 253 – MÖ 183 döneminde yaşamış Yunan devlet adamı olan [[Philopoemen]] hakkındadır. Polibios'un bu eseri kaybolmakla beraber bu eserin içeriğinin [[Plutarkhos]]'un MS 2. yüzyıl sonunda yazmış olduğu [[Paralel Yaşamalar]] adlı tanınmış biyografi eserinde bulunan Philopoemen hayatına ait bölümün ana kaynağı olduğu kabul edilmektedir.
Polibios'un gayet ayrıntılı olarak işleyip "Taktikler" adını verdiği uzunca bir deneme eseri de kayıptır. Bu eserinde Polibios'un Antik Yunan ve Romalı ordularinin kullandıkları askeri taktikleri hakkinda uzun detaylı tasvirler yaptiği bilinmektedir. Bu eserin bir kısmının Polibios'un "Tarihler" adlı eseri içeriğinde bulunduğu; ama Tarihler eserinin bu kısmının da kayıp olduğu kabul edilmektedir.
Polibios'un diğer bir kayıp olmuş eseri bir tarihi monograf olan Romalılarin İspanya'da yaptıklari [[Kaltibriyan Savaşları]]'nın son safhasında [[Ebro Nehri]] kıyılarında yaşayan bir kabile ile yaptıkları [[Numentiyen Savaşı]] hakkında olduğu bilinmektedir.
=== ''Tarihler'' adlı eseri===
Polibios'un en büyük ve en önemli eserinin adı ''Tarihler'''dir. Bu eserin 40 cilt olduğu bilinmektedir. Fakat elimize tümüyle detaylı olarak sadece ilk beş kitap (Kitap I 'den Kitap V'e kadar) bulunmaktadır. Kitap VI'nın bazı kayıp kısımları hariç önemli kısımları da elimize geçmiştir. Fakat diğer 34 kitapdan ancak kısa parçalar gününüze gelebilmiş ve diğer parçalar kaybolmuştur.
Bununla beraber elimize geçen kısımlara dayanarak Polibios'un Roma tarihinin incelemesi ve analizinde, tarihçi [[Yaşlı Çato]] (MO 234-149) ile birlikte tarihçiliğin babası olduğu kabul edilmektedir. Polibios'un ''Tarihler'' eseri MÖ 264-MÖ 146 dönemini kapsamaktadır. Bu dönemin içinde eserinin teksif olduğu dönem MÖ 220 - MÖ 167'de Roma'nın baş düşmanı olarak kabul ettiği Kartaca ile yaptığı [[Pön Savaşları]] ve bu savaşlaşlarda etap etap Kartacalıları yenip Roma'nın Akdeniz'de en güçlü egemen devlet olması dönemidir.
''Tarihler'' eserinin Kitap I ile Kitap V bölümü Polibios'un yaşadığı dönemde Akdeniz'de kıyıları olan önemli devletlerin, bunlar arasında özellikle mevcut olan antik Yunan şehir devletleri ve [[Ptolemaios Hanedanı]] altında [[Mısır]]'ın, politikalarına devlet devlet ayrintilarla hasredilmiştir ve bundan sonra bunların birbirleri ile olan "karşılıklı ilişkileri" ortaya çıkartılmaktadir. Polibios Kitap Vİ. da antik Romlılarin en sonunda Akdeniz'de en güçlü egemen devlet olmayı başarmasına önemli neden olan politik, askeri ve moral kurumları ele almaktadır. [[Birinci Pön Savaşı]] ve [[İkinci Pön Savaşı]]'nı Polibios bu eserinde incelemektedir. Polibios [[Hannibal]] ile [[Afrikalı Scipio|Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major ]] arasında yapılan [[Ticinus Muharebesi]], [[Trebia Muharebesi]], [[Sağüntum Kuştaması]], [[Lilybaeum Muharebesi]] ve [[Ren Nehri Geçişi Muharebesi]] gibi askeri çatışmaları kronik olarak ele almıştır. Polibios'un Roma'nın Akdeniz'de tek egemen güç olmasi sonucunun meydana çıkamasını açıklaması Romalıların gelenekleri ve kurumlari ile asil faaliyetlere önem vermeleri, erdemliliği sevmeleri; ailelerine ve yaşlilarına hürmet göstermeleri ve tanrılarından korkmaları olarak açıklamaktadır.
Kitap VII'dan ele geçen kısımlardan Polibios'un bu kitapta bir tarihçinin baş görevinin belgelerin analizi, coğrafi bilgilerin yararlı olanların tekrar gözden geçirilmesi ve siyasi tecrübelilik olarak tanımlamaktadır. Polibios tarihinde kronik olarak ele aldığı olaylarin ancak bunlara katkıda bulunmuş olanların anlatıları ile teyit edilmesinden sonra yazıya geçirilebileceğini savunmakta idi. Böylece tarih yazmada tarihçinin aynı bir iyi ahlaklı gazeteci gibi ancak gerçekleri aksettirmesini savunanlardan ilki olmuştur. Polibios'un tarih yazdığı dönemde profesyonel bir tarihçinin gerçeği ve uydurmayı birbirinden ayrıma gücünü kazanmak için politika tecrübesi gerekmekte ve yine bir profesyonel tarihçinin olaylarımn doğruluğunu yargılayabilmesi için ele alınan konunun içinde geçtiği coğrafi mevkıleri iyi bilmesi gerektiğini ididia etmiştir. Bu prensiplere uyan Polibios'un şahsen siyaset ve askerlik tecrübeleri bulunmaktaydı ve geniş olarak Akdeniz havzasında seyahat etmişti.
Polibius tarihini yazmakta iken antik Yunan ve Romalı yazılı kaynakları da elden geçirip bunlaradn faydalandığını bildirmektedir. Ama faydalandığını iddia ettiği bu kaynakları hazırlayanların isimleri eserinden bulunmamaktadir. Ancak Kitap Xİİ'den elimize geçen parçalarda kendinin ele aldığı dönemin tarihini ele alan Timaeus'un yazdığı eseri incelemektedir. Polibios Timeaus'un tarihinin Romalılara tarafında yanlı olduğunu ve doğruluğu şüpheli ve gerçeklere uymayan kısımlar ihtiva ettiğini iddia etmektedir.
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[[Livy]] made reference to and uses Polybius' ''Histories'' as source material in his own narrative. Polybius was among the first historians to attempt to present history as a sequence of causes and effects, based upon a careful examination and criticism of tradition. He narrated his history based upon first-hand knowledge. ''The Histories'' capture the varied elements of the story of human behavior: nationalism, [[xenophobia]], duplicitous politics, war, brutality, loyalty, valour, intelligence, reason, and resourcefulness.
Aside from the narrative of the historical events, Polybius also included three books of digressions. Book 34 was entirely devoted to questions of geography and included some trenchant criticisms of [[Eratosthenes]], whom he accused of passing on popular preconceptions or ''laodogmatika''. Book 12 was a disquisition on the writing of history, citing extensive passages of lost historians, such as [[Callisthenes]] and [[Theopompus]]. Most influential was Book 6, which describes Roman political, military, and moral institutions, which he considered key to Rome's success; it presented Rome as having a mixed constitution in which monarchical, aristocratic, and popular elements existed in stable equilibrium. This enabled Rome to escape, for the time being, the cycle of eternal revolutions (''[[anacyclosis]]''). While Polybius was not the first to advance this view, his account provides the most cogent illustration of the ideal for later political theorists.
A key theme of ''The Histories'' is the good statesman as virtuous and composed. The character of the Polybian statesman is exemplified in that of [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]]. His beliefs about Philip's character led Polybius to reject historian [[Theopompus]]' description of Philip's private, drunken debauchery. For Polybius, it was inconceivable that such an able and effective statesman could have had an immoral and unrestrained private life as described by Theopompus.<ref>Hannibal at New Carthage: Polybius 3. 15 and the Power of Irrationality
Author: A. M. Eckstein, Classical Philology, Vol. 84, No. 1 (January 1989), pp. 3-4</ref>
In recounting the [[Roman Republic]], Polybius stated that "the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] stands in awe of the multitude, and cannot neglect the feelings of the people".<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0234%3Aid%3Db6c16 Polybius on the Senate and People (6.16)] from [[Perseus Digital Library]] at [[Tufts University]]</ref>
Other important themes running through ''The Histories'' are the role of Fortune in the affairs of nations, his insistence that history should be demonstratory, or [[Apodicticity|''apodeiktike'']], providing lessons for statesmen, and that historians should be "men of action" ([[Pragmatics|''pragmatikoi'']]).
Polybius is considered by some to be the successor of [[Thucydides]] in terms of [[objectivity (science)|objectivity]] and critical [[reasoning]], and the forefather of scholarly, painstaking historical research in the modern scientific sense. According to this view, his work sets forth the course of history's occurrences with clearness, penetration, sound judgment, and, among the circumstances affecting the outcomes, he lays especial emphasis on geographical conditions. Modern historians are especially impressed with the manner in which Polybius used his sources, particularly documentary evidence as well as his citation and quotation of sources. Furthermore, there is some admiration of Polybius's meditation on the nature of historiography in Book 12. His work belongs, therefore, amongst the greatest productions of ancient historical writing. The writer of the ''Oxford Companion to Classical Literature'' (1937) praises him for his "earnest devotion to truth" and his systematic pursuit of causation.
It has long been acknowledged that Polybius's writings are prone to a certain [[hagiographic]] tone when writing of his friends, such as Scipio, and subject to a vindictive tone when detailing the exploits of his enemies, such as Callicrates, the Achaean statesman responsible for his Roman exile.<ref>Peter Green, Alexander to Actium</ref>
First as a hostage in Rome, then as client to the Scipios, and finally as a collaborator with Roman rule after 146 BC, Polybius was not in a position to freely express any negative opinions of Rome. [[Peter Green (historian)|Peter Green]] advises us to recall that Polybius was chronicling Roman history for a Greek audience, with the aim of convincing them of the necessity of accepting Roman rule – which he believed was inevitable. Nonetheless, for Green, Polybius's ''Histories'' remain invaluable and are the best source for the era they cover. [[Ron Mellor]] also sees Polybius as partisan who, out of loyalty to [[Scipio Aemilianus|Scipio]], vilified Scipio's opponents.<ref>The Historians of Ancient Rome, Ron Mellor</ref> Similarly, [[Adrian Goldsworthy]] frequently mentions Polybius' connections with Scipio when he uses Polybius as a source for Scipio's generalship.
Polybius has been noted to be hostile to some of his subject material. H. Ormerod considers that Polybius cannot be regarded as an 'altogether unprejudiced witness' in relation to his ''betes noires'', the Aetolians, the Carthaginians, and the Cretans.<ref>Piracy in the Ancient World, p141 H Ormerod</ref> Other historians agree Polybius' treatment of [[Crete]] is biased in a negative sense.<ref>Mogens Herman Hansen 1995, ''Sources for the Ancient Greek City-State: Symposium'', August 24–27, 1994, Kgl. Danske, Videnskabernes Selskab, 376 pages {{ISBN|87-7304-267-6}}</ref> On the other hand, Hansen notes that Polybius' exposition of [[ancient Crete|Crete]] supplied an extremely detailed account of the island. In fact, observations made by Polybius, in conjunction with passages from [[Strabo]] and [[Scylax]],<ref>[[Robert Pashley]], ''Travels in Crete'', 1837, J. Murray</ref> allowed the discovery of the location of the lost city of [[Kydonia]] on Crete.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.themodernantiquarian.com/site/10881/cydonia.html#fieldnotes |title=C. Michael Hogan, ''Cydonia'', Modern Antiquarian, January 23, 2008 |publisher=Themodernantiquarian.com |accessdate=2010-02-28}}</ref>
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== Şifreleme ==
[[Antik Yunanistan]]'da askerî ve ticari bilginin güvenli bir şekilde iletimini sağlayabilmek için [[Yunanlar]] bazı şifreleme sistemleri geliştirdiler. Bugün Polybius damatahtası denen, bir cihaz kullanarak metin şifrelemenin temellerini ortaya koydu.
Satır 53 ⟶ 124:
:::üçüncü sayı 6, dolayısıyla 6. satıra bakıyoruz, dördüncü sayı 1 dolayısıyla 1. sütuna bakıyoruz –> o
şeklinde devam edilerek açık metin elde edilir.
==Kaynakça==
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